The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

Ramsar site management plans -- Albania, Karavasta Lagoon

KARAVASTA LAGOON

MANAGEMENT PLAN

Acknowledgments

The consortium of Technital S.p.A., Station biologique de la Tour du Valat, and Ecotourism Ltd. would like to thank Dr L. Selfo, Chairman of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP), for his continuous support during this first phase of the Karavasta Lagoon-Wetland Management project. The project executants benefited from useful discussions with and proposals by the members of the international project Advisory Panel, notably M. Acreman (chair), G. Baboianu, F. Bego, P. Breber, A. Gaçe, T. Jones, C. Lefebvre, and M. Koutrakis. The following Albanian experts provided further comments: A. Bako, L. Caslli, B. Cuçi, A. Floko, D. Guri, I. Gurabardhi, F. Hoxha, E. Hanku, T. Lako, G. Metohu, V. Naçi, N. Panariti, G. Pilika, A. Pustina and S. Selfo.

This project is financed by the European Union's Phare Programme, which provides grant finance to support its partner countries in central and eastern Europe to the stage where they are ready to assume the obligations of European Union membership.

The Ramsar Site Management Plan Working Team

T. Salathé coordinated the preparation of the Ramsar Site Management Plan with inputs by the colleagues listed in alphabetical order:

How to Read this Document

This Management Plan is one of the outputs of the first phase of the specific Phare project for the Karavasta Lagoon-Wetland Management. The project Terms of Reference required a specific number of studies to be carried out during the years 1995-1996. Therefore, the Management Plan is essentially based on information compiled in these sectoral studies, covering the following tasks:

- an analysis of the legal and institutional framework,
- a proposed legal instrument for the Karavasta Ramsar Site,
- a report on participatory rural appraisals carried out in a dozen villages around the lagoon,
- a study on the tourist carrying capacity of the Divjaka beach area,
- an ecotourism development plan,
- an inventory of natural habitats,
- an ecological guide and information brochure for visitors,
- a study on the hydrobiological importance of the lagoon channels,
- a study on fisheries improvement, and
- a quantitative survey of waterbirds.

Detailed information can be found in these specific reports. For other sources of information, the reader is referred to the literature cited at the end of the Management Plan.

Two Documents: a Legal plus a Technical Instrument

The core document for the management of the Karavasta Ramsar Site is the proposed "Karavasta Area Protection Law", i.e. the legal instrument. This instrument proposes an institutional structure to integrate the management needs of the Area, it delimits its geographical coverage and zonation and it lists the management activities and processes affecting the site. Once adopted by the Council of Ministers, the legal instrument will provide the basic law directing all further activities in the Karavasta Area.

The Karavasta Area Protection Law provides for the preparation, implementation and regular review of a Management Plan which defines the management objectives for the zones established under the law. While the law is by its very nature a fixed legal instrument, the Management Plan remains a flexible, dynamic document that should be reviewed on an annual basis and properly revised at least once every five years, after consultation with local inhabitants and other interested parties.

Upon the entry into force of the Law, the provisions of the Management Plan will replace the provisions of existing territorial development plans which relate to land within the management Area.

The Management Plan (i.e. the present document) is the result of the first phase (15 months) of the Karavasta Lagoon-Wetland Management project. It is therefore a preliminary, rather than a final document. Eventually, truly integrated cross-sectoral management is needed for the Karavasta Ramsar Site. Given the Terms of Reference of the project, the current document focuses on the management of environmental resources to protect the ecosystem biodiversity and to derive economic benefit for the local communities.

Other, equally important requirements, such as the restoration and improvement of major village infrastructures, are not dealt with in detail. Prescriptions for such development plans still need to be elaborated by the Ministries concerned, in accordance with the proposed Law and the general management principles outlined in this Management Plan.

1. Preamble

On 22 August 1994, with Decision Nº 413, the Council of Ministers declared the natural ecosystem of Karavasta Lagoon and Divjaka Park as a site to be included in the "List of Wetlands of International Importance" established by the Ramsar Convention. By acceding to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, 1971), Albania agreed to maintain the ecological character of this site. The Karavasta wetland ecosystem is a dynamic area, open to influences from natural and human factors. In order to maintain its biological diversity and productivity and to allow wise use of its resources, an overall agreement is needed between the various owners, occupiers and interested parties. The management planning process provides this overall agreement.

Sound integrated management of the Karavasta lagoon ecosystem depends on a clear understanding of the physical, chemical and biological processes which control its functions and the ability to find a balance between the environment and the development needs of the local communities. Management planning will take a holistic approach, it is a dynamic process the many components of which will have to be considered in coordination. The management plan recognizes the underlying complexity and will need to be developed in parallel with the institutional and administrative structures to implement the plan. Finally, an adequate budget for its implementation will have to be made available.

Management planning is a way of thinking which involves recording, evaluating and planning. It is an interactive process subject to constant review and revision. The process includes three basic actions: describing, defining objectives, and taking the necessary actions.

2. Description

2.1 General Information

2.1.1 The Geographical Context

Location and Characteristics
The Karavasta area lies in the central part of Albania, at the Adriatic coast. The flat and sandy coast is continuously modified by the combined forces of sediments carried by large rivers, and eroding and accumulating marine currents. A most diverse mosaic of natural coastal habitats lies between Shkumbini and Semani river deltas. The major feature is the large Karavasta lagoon (c.4,200 ha), located 40°55'N and 19°30'E (Figure 1). On old dunes along the coastline, rich forests of deciduous and pine trees subsist, while the coastal plain inland of Karavasta lagoon has been almost completely drained for agricultural purposes. Currently, the drainage and irrigation system, with large pumps and many reservoirs in the adjacent hillsides, is poorly maintained and hardly functioning.

Geology and Geomorphology
The central part of Albania's coast forms part of the Adriatic lowland, composed of Miocene and Pliocene molasses on top of which one finds Quaternary marine and alluvial deposits. The transgressive location of the molasses deposits influenced the formation of paleographical gulfs which are important for oil and gas deposits. Also the anticlinal chains further inland, with Pliocene and Tortonian deposits, are expected to contain oil and gas deposits. Considering the tectonic characteristics, such deposits can be expected on the continental shelf as well (according to information taken from the report compiled by Truta in 1996).

The dynamics of the geomorphology is manifested through two processes: a) accumulation and deposition changing the coastline, creating lagoons, and replenishing the beaches with sand of mostly continental origin, and b) moderate to strong erosion processes affecting low-lying shores and sand spits. The Karavasta area lies in the most dynamic part of the Albanian coast, as a result of sediment transport at the past and present river mouths of Shkumbini and Semani (Truta 1996, Ciavola & Simeoni in press).

Hydrology
Two large drainage channels drain the agricultural plain inland of the Karavasta area, west of the district town Lushnja. The water catchment basin draining directly into Karavasta lagoon is therefore rather small, limited by Tërbufi channel in the North, the Divjaka hills in the East, and Myzeqe channel in the South. A substantial number of small reservoirs have been constructed in the Divjaka hills to provide water for irrigation in the plains (Figure 2). Local people in Divjaka and the dozen or so villages around Karavasta lagoon obtain their water for domestic use from a large number of individual wells driven into the groundwater aquifer of the coastal plain. As Karavasta lagoon is situated next to two large river mouths, Shkumbini in the North and Semani in the South, their waters are likely to be carried into the lagoon by coastal currents.

Shkumbini has a catchment basin of 2,445 km2 with a mean annual discharge of 60 m3/s and 5.7 million tonnes annual sediment transport. Its waters are polluted upstream by the Elbasan metallurgic factory and urban sewage outflows. Semani drains a catchment of 5,649 km2 with a mean annual discharge of 90 m3/s and 12.6 million tonnes annual sediment transport. It is heavily contaminated by industrial and urban liquid waste from the upstream towns Ballshi, Patos and Fieri, as well as leakages from the oil drilling fields in this area. Both rivers meander over a stretch of several kilometres through the coastal plain. Their beds are unstable due to large flow variations. The position of the river mouths is rapidly and constantly changing, leaving many abandoned meanders and oxbows. In the coastal plain, embankments alongside the river courses protect the drained agricultural plain from floods (Truta 1996).

The coastal plain contains a highly productive alluvial groundwater aquifer, generally characterised by a high transmissivity of 500-8,000 m3/day. The capacity of the many wells in the plain, with a depth of 15-70 m, varies from 2-5 to 40-50 l/s. The Lushnja plain as a whole has a groundwater capacity of 52,000-60,000 m3/day. In general, this water is of good quality. However, the gravel aquifers are vulnerable in recharge areas near the rivers, and particularly in infiltration wells. The pollution risk is greatest in the Rrogozhina area, due to the pollution of Shkumbini river from iron works upstream near Elbasan (Truta 1996).

Figure 1 Location of Karavasta Lagoon in Albania and Water Catchments of Shkumbini and Semani Rivers [not available].

Near-shore Characteristics
Continuous marine currents move counter clock-wise, following the general circulation scheme of water masses in the Adriatic Sea, with a speed of 0.3-0.5 nautical miles/h, tending to slow down during summer. Wind-driven currents can be very strong, persisting over several days. Average tidal rise is 0.2-0.4 m, depending on the speed of winds, highest tides being registered in autumn and winter. The highest waves are caused by the NE "murlan" off-shore wind. The SE "shiroku" generates smaller, on-shore waves. In the coastal bays, waves may reach 3.5 m height, in the open sea up to 4.5 m. The near-shore surface water temperature oscillates between an average 12°C in February and 25°C in July and August. Average salinity of coastal waters is around 30 g/l in winter, going up to 39 g/l in summer. The water depth increases slowly with increasing distance from the shore, the sandy sea bottom becoming more muddy with increasing depth. Strong currents prevent the installation of abundant bottom flora and fauna (Truta 1996).

Climate
The climate of the area is Mediterranean with average annual rainfall of 950-1,200 mm on 85-100 days/year, mainly during autumn and winter. Average monthly temperatures vary from 12°C in February to 24°C in August. Due to the influence of the Adriatic Sea, local temperatures seldom fall below freezing. The vegetation period (>10°C average temperature) starts in March and lasts until the first days of December. Plant growth depends during the summer months on sufficient water supply. The coastal plain is particularly windy, with strongest winds in February. During winter, the most frequent winds blow from SE, during summer from NW (Truta 1996).

Mineral Resources
Gas deposits are found along the coastline. Most of the extracted gas is used for the fertilizer factory at Fieri. Some extraction takes place in the coastal plain west of Divjaka. Future exploitation plans focus on off-shore resources. Apparently, along Shkumbini mouth, titanium deposits exist.

2.1.2 The Socio-economic Context

Population Structure and Dynamics
During 1945-1990, without cross-border migrations, the State controlled urbanisation and artificially maintained an equilibrium between cities and rural areas. The birth rate decreased constantly from 6 births/1000 women in 1969 to 2.7 in 1990, while the mortality remained stable. As a result of State interventions, there has been no difference between the growth rates of rural villages in the hillsides and those in the coastal plain during the last twenty years.

In 1989, Lushnja district had a population of 132,000, including 30,000 inhabitants of Lushnja town. Currently, the main characteristic of the Albanian population is its large percentage of young people, as a result of high fertility and natural growth rates. The urban population is growing faster than the rural population, including migration flows towards the cities, especially the coastal towns (Durresi, Vlora, etc.). This immigration to the coastal area counteracts effects of locally decreasing natural growth rates (Truta 1996).

Population Projections
With the current privatisation of land and economy, and the expected development of previously neglected economic activities, such as commerce and tourism, more dynamic population movements can be expected during the next ten years. In the coastal zone, the population growth will be above national average, given the migrations from Albania's interior areas to the coast. Population projections for Lushnja district are 137,000 for 1995 and 167,000 for 2005 (with 36,000 and 51,000 respectively for Lushnja town). Some outward movement, to the attractive urban centres of Durresi, Tirana, and probably Vlora to a lesser degree, is projected. However, in the immediate vicinity of the Karavasta lagoon, significant population growth is projected due to an active settlement policy and the increasing attraction of beach tourism and leisure-related economic possibilities (Truta 1996).

Economics
Until 1991, the coastal strip was of minor importance to the Albanian economy. Industrial and agricultural production constituted the backbone of the employment sources in the coastal plain. District towns, such as Lushnja, function as distribution centres, facilitated by the country's main communications route from Tirana to Durresi and Vlora. The importance of this area is demonstrated by the fact that most of the industrial plants in the area (fertilizer plant in Fieri, paper mill and glass factory in Kavaja, chemical factory in Durresi, soda factory in Vlora) were producing intermediate products for use in many other districts. However, since the political changes in 1991, only a minor part of the manufacture remains active, and the heavy industries stopped operating, since their outdated facilities could not withstand international competition (Truta 1996).

Electricity
Albania satisfies its electricity needs mostly with hydro-electric plants. All settlements are supplied with electricity. However, some parts of the network are operating at or above maximum capacity, including the Lushnja (110/35kV) transformer station (Truta 1996).

Figure 2 Water Catchment Basin of Karavasta Lagoon.
Shown are the main rivers, lagoons, oxbows and drainage channels in the catchment plain, plus the Divjaka hills with their main watershed and artificial reservoirs for irrigation.
[not available]

Water Supply
Water sources justifying investments for human water supply are abundant and in general close to the potential consumers. However, the present supply system is characterized by shortages, heavy losses in the obsolete distribution network, and increasing pollution risks. This situation also hampers badly needed investments for urban, agricultural and industrial development (Truta 1996).

Liquid and Solid Waste Disposals
Most coastal towns utilize a combined sewerage system (mixed urban and industrial liquid runoffs). Waste waters are discharged into canals or the Adriatic, without any treatment. The Lushnja sewer discharges into the Myzeqe drainage channel. Solid waste is collected in larger settlements and transported to landfills, where garbage is disposed without further treatment (Truta 1996).

Agriculture
Lushnja (with 61 per cent of all land cultivated) and Fieri (72 per cent) figure among the most significant Albanian agricultural districts figure. For more than forty years, the structure of agricultural production was directed by a policy of self-sufficiency with a high percentage of field crops (82 per cent of all cultivated land, mostly wheat and maize); olive groves, orchards and vineyards occupying the remaining 18 per cent. Two thirds of the agricultural area are irrigated. Although the irrigation infrastructure is currently mostly inoperative, individual efforts provide irrigation water to many individual plots. At present, although about 90 per cent of the agricultural land has been privatized, output is very low due to the delapidated infrastructure and the tendency of farmers to produce for their own subsistence needs. However, there is a trend, especially in the coastal plain, to mechanize agriculture, to rehabilitate irrigation infrastructures, and to secure access of the products to national and international markets. At present, imported products are still dominant on the domestic market, due to the lack of standardization and trading systems, but in the long run, domestic products will be in much higher demand, especially vegetables, fruits, meat, and dairy products (Truta 1996).

Settlements in the Karavasta Area
The intensive land reclamation in the coastal plain started in the Fifties, accompanied by the establishment of many small settlements (Figure 3). Divjaka town (6,500 inhabitants) plus a dozen small villages (total population 10,000; ranging from 500 to 1,700 inhabitants/village) are situated immediately around Karavasta lagoon. Only the populations of Divjaka and Miza in the NE of the lagoon increased significantly during recent years (Inglis 1996).

Village Infrastructure
Only Divjaka town and its beach area can be reached by a tarmac road. All other villages are extremely difficult to access because of the poor state of the connecting tracks. The participatory rural appraisals (PRA) undertaken in Divjaka and a dozen villages in the immediate surroundings of Karavasta lagoon (cf. Figure 3) identified the almost complete absence of any communal infrastructure, such as drinking water supply (based mainly on individual wells) and sewage management (individual septic tanks) as major structural problems (Inglis 1996). Furthermore, the need to develop solid waste management and telecommunications facilities was identified (cf. Table 1).

Local Economic Occupations
Main occupation of the inhabitants is (subsistence) farming in the coastal plain immediately next to the lagoon, on allocated individual lots of 1.5 ha/family, including cereal, vegetable and fruit crops and some livestock (cattle, sheep, donkeys, horses, buffaloes, goats, geese, chicken). When available, manure from individually owned livestock is used for crops, complemented, if affordable, by chemical fertilizers. Pesticide use is increasing, depending on the economic resources of individual farmers.

The secondary occupation of the inhabitants is fishing (c.500 people) along the coast and in the lagoon. However, only a few people (c.40) from the local settlements are members of the lagoon fisheries cooperative, the remaining local people fish in the lagoon without permission.

Increasingly, the Divjaka beach area is used by Albanian (and a few foreign, almost exclusively Macedonian) tourists. Outside of the beach hotel and holiday facilities (appartments, camping), most private accomodation facilities are offered by families in Divjaka town (Goodwin 1996, Inglis 1996).

2.1.3 The Legal and Administrative Context

International Obligations
Albania has ratified the Biodiversity Convention, the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution and its related protocols (notably the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean), and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat. Within the framework of the Mediterranean Action Plan (coordinated by a United Nations Environmental Programme office in Athens, UNEP/MAP) Albania embarked on an integrated Coastal Area Management Programme (CAMP). The first results of this programme, covering the Karavasta Area, are summarised by Truta (1996).

Figure 3 Settlements and Main Road Connections in the Karavasta Catchment Area.
Village names are shown for those settlements where PRAs have been conducted (except Divjaka Beach and the Fisheries cooperative installations).
[not available]

Table 1 Main Results of the Participatory Rural Appraisals (taken from Inglis 1996).

By acceding to the Ramsar Convention, Albania accepted four main obligations relating to the conservation and wise use of wetlands throughout its territory: The first obligation is the designation of at least one wetland for inclusion in the 'List of Wetlands of International Importance' (cf. below). A general obligation concerns the inclusion of wetland conservation considerations within the national land-use planning, so as to promote, as far as possible, the wise use of wetlands in Albania. Furthermore, states which join the Convention are required to promote the conservation of wetlands in their territory through the establishment of nature reserves on wetlands, whether or not they are included in the List of Wetlands of International Importance. Finally, contracting parties are obliged to consult with other contracting parties about implementation of the Convention, especially as regards transfrontier wetlands, shared water systems, shared species and development aid for wetland projects.

Institutions at National Level
Executive competence for the management, exploitation, conservation and development of natural resources and environmental protection is split between several State authorities. Institutional responsibility for environmental issues has been greatly clarified by the adoption of the Law on Environmental Protection of 1993, but there are still some administrative and jurisdictional overlaps.

The Ministries of relevance to the Karavasta area are:

The Ministry of Agriculture and Food, which incorporates:
- the General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) which directly administers protected areas through its district services;
- the Directorate for Nature Conservation, created in 1994;
- the Directorate of Fisheries (DF), which administers inter alia the water surface of lagoons, including in protected areas and coastal and marine fisheries; and
- the Directorate of Land and Water, which regulates the use of water for agriculture.

The Ministry of Construction and Tourism, which is responsible for developing the National Tourism Strategy which must be approvied by the Council of Ministers. The Ministry also incorporates:
- the General Directorate for Water which administers water supply and sewerage through district water supply and operations companies.

The Ministry of Industry, Mining and Energy.

The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection (MHEP), which is required by law to develop the government's environmental policy to obtain sustainable economic and social development and maintain and improve the quality of life.

The Committee of Environmental Protection (CEP) is responsible for the implementation of this policy. This specialised central agency of the MHEP was established by Decree Nº 7452 of 5 January 1991 and does not yet have ministerial status or financial autonomy. Its powers and duties are laid down in Article 40 of the Law of Environmental Protection which also defines the composition and functions of the Inspectorate of Environmental Protection (IEP). The CEP has 12 regional agencies, employing 38 environmental inspectors who must comply with "circulars" issued by the Chairman of the CEP. The CEP is expressly required to work with other ministries, central institutions and local authorities (Art. 40).

The highest consultative bodies at national level are the Council of Territorial Planning (KRT) and the National Water Council, both chaired by the Prime Minister.

There is now a five-member national Interministerial Committee on Tourism. In the Karavasta Ramsar Site, the MHEP, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food and the Ministry of Construction and Tourism are expressively required to work together to resolve planning problems for the purpose of conserving the natural properties of the ecosystem (Art. 4 of Decision Nº 413 of 22 August 1994, cf. below) (Shine 1996).

Local Administrative Authorities
There are twelve Regions in Albania, each with an administrative Prefecture. The Karavasta area is situated in the Region of Fieri, which includes Lushnja and Vlora Districts. Three CEP experts are attached to Fieri Prefecture, one of whom is permanently based in Lushnja.

There are 32 Districts in Albania. The Karavasta Area is administered by Lushnja District which employs agricultural, fisheries and forestry specialists. An agricultural land tax is payable by each farmer to the District.

Communes or municipalities are individual villages or groups of smaller villages, with an elected Mayor. The Karavasta Area essentially covers two Communes: Divjaka and Remasi, each with a police station (Shine 1996).

Territorial Planning Legislation
Planning applications are decided by the Commune, or by regional or national Councils of Territorial Planning (KRT). The Commune has planning powers in respect of buildings or other installations for agricultural purposes on land outside the yellow boundary line of each village, whilst the Regional KRT has competence in respect of buildings within the yellow line around urban areas. The National KRT decides on applications for developments above 5,000 m2, taking account of the Region's views, and may override decisions made at Regional or Communal level.

The Council of Ministers' Decision Nº 321 of 20 July 1992 is of particular relevance to the Karavasta project. It established a Coastal Protection Belt delimited by a "red line" ("vija kufizuese bredgetare") which runs the whole length of the Albanian coast (Figure 4). Development is prohibited in specific zones within the Belt, namely 300 m from the seashore on sandy coasts, 150 m from riverbanks, and 200 m around historical and archeological sites. Any development in the rest of the Belt is subject to permission from the National KRT.

There is scope for jurisdictional conflict over development in protected areas, whether or not in the Coastal Protection Belt. The General Directorate for Forestry is responsible for such areas, but the National KRT may override its planning decisions. To date, the enforcement of applicable development restrictions has been inadequate or non existent in the Divjaka coastal area, and this has led to many small buildings (kiosks) being established within the Coastal Protection Belt (Shine 1996).

Land Privatisation and Land Tenure
Land privatisation was initiated by the New Land Law Nº 7501 of 19 July 1991 which divides land into three categories:
- agricultural land used for arable crops;
- land occupied by forests, pastures and meadows; and
- non-agricultural land used for economic, social and cultural purposes, roads and railways, coastal areas and beaches, all waterways and wetlands, built land and land covered by monuments of historic and archaeological interest.

A property market has now been created pursuant to laws on the purchase and sale of land adopted in 1993 and 1995. The 1995 law provides that Albanian natural or legal persons may freely sell the land given to them during privatisation, and that foreign persons wishing to invest in Albanian territory, in accordance with the law on foreign investments, may buy publicly or privately-owned land. The process of land privatisation and distribution is not yet complete, and there is still insecurity over property rights, which is considered by some to have discouraged foreign investment in Albania.

By way of example, a Law on the Privatisation of Public Land to Compensate Former Owners, adopted in November 1995, authorises the transfer of state-owned land to private individuals in compensation for land taken during collectivisation. "Compensation areas" are defined according to national guidelines, following local consultations, and the final decision is taken by the National Committee of Land Compensation, which includes representatives of the Ministries of Agriculture and Tourism as well as the Chairman of CEP. A proposal to designate 450 ha south of Karavasta lagoon, in the Coastal Protection Belt, as a compensation area under this law has apparently been withdrawn.

Environment Protection Legislation
The Law on Environment Protection (Nº 7664) of 21 January 1993 is a framework law which sets out six objectives for sustainable development:
- prevention and reduction of pollution of any kind;
- conservation of biological diversity specific to the country's biogeographical background;
- rational management of the natural resources and the avoidance of their over-exploitation;
- ecological restoration of areas damaged by human activities or natural destructive phenomena;
- preservation of an ecological balance;
- maintenance and improvement of the quality of life.

Regulations or sectoral laws to achieve these objectives are to be laid down by the Council of Ministers (Article 52).

The law lays down detailed Environmental Impact Assessment requirements which apply to all natural and legal persons, Albanian or foreign, for territorial structure and urban development plans and their amendments, for projects and activities which have strong impacts on the environment and human health, for projects for reconstruction and enlargement of such activities, and for other projects, according to the judgement and definitions made by the local authority. The CEP, in consultation with relevant ministries and other central institutions, lays down rules for the preparation of EIAs.

Figure 4 The Coastal Protection Belt in the Karavasta Area. [not available]

In addition, licences for activities affecting the environment are required from the designated competent authority for inter alia:
- construction of buildings and infrastructure;
- land reclamation and the improvement of watercourses;
- exploitation of mineral and biological resources in waters intended for fishing;
- exploitation of forests of common interest, creation of forested areas, hunting, taking into account game species,
hunting seasons, means and admissible levels of hunting;
- exploitation of flora, fauna, natural resources, coastal zones and sea bottoms;
- opening up of new areas for growing fruits in zones with protected water resources;
- production, sale or use of toxic products, as well as those to be used for phytosanitary, agricultural and sylvicultural
purposes;
- the import and export of plant and animal species of wild flora and fauna;
- other activities that may have an impact on the environment as determined by the CEP.

Environmental offences may, at CEP's discretion, be punished as administrative violations or criminal offences. The income from all taxes, fees and fines generated under this law is paid into the Environmental Fund of either the CEP or the competent local authority. Licence fees for activities affecting the environment are payable to the authority which grants the licence. Environmental funds may be used to support specified activities such as the elimination of pollution sources, the rehabilitation of ecologically damaged zones and the provision of staff and offices.

The Legal Designation of a Ramsar Site
On 22 August 1994, with Decision Nº 413, the Albanian Council of Ministers declared the area of Karavasta Lagoon and Divjaka National Park as a site to be included in the "Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance". By acceding to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Albania has undertaken to maintain the ecological character of this listed site. Furthermore, it has agreed to include wetland conservation considerations within its land-use planning so as to promote, as far as possible, the wise use of all wetlands on Albanian territory.

Decision 413 specifies the limits of the Karavasta-Divjaka Ramsar Site which includes a reserve for hunting (classified as IUCN habitats/species management area category IV), a strict flora and fauna protection area (wardened by the General Directorate of Forestry), the Divjaka Pine Forest National Park, and proposed zones for Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) protection, traditional fisheries, and public hunting (cf. Figure 5).

As a contracting party to the Ramsar Convention, Albania is required to formulate and implement its planning to promote the conservation of the Karavasta Ramsar Site. Decision 413 provides for limited cross-sectoral management by requiring the Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, and the Ministry of Construction and Territorial Planning to work jointly on planning and tourism issues through special projects to preserve the natural values of the ecosystem (Article 4).

The Karavasta Area Protection Law
This management plan, elaborated by Albanian and international specialists, within the framework of a programme of support by the European Commission to the Albanian Comittee for Environmental Protection (CEP), is a first contribution to the long-term implementation of the Ramsar obligations at the Karavasta Ramsar Site and other Albanian wetlands. The present management plan document is completed by a revised zoning proposal for the "Karavasta Area", better aligned with the Albanian Coastal Area Management Plan (elaborated under UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan), and a proposed legal instrument for the Karavasta Area, provisionally called the "Karavasta Area Protection Law".

The proposed law is based on a unitary approach to nature conservation administration, to avoid decisions which are positive for a given sector but negative for others. It therefore provides for the creation of an Integrated Management Authority based in Divjaka (as the largest settlement in the Area), with clear duties and comprehensive powers to implement this management plan in accordance with the provisions of the Ramsar Convention. The suggested composition of the Authority includes representatives of key national ministries or directorates, local councils with territory in the Karavasta Area, residents of the Area representing certain economic sectors, conservation NGOs, and scientific institutions.

The Karavasta Area Protection Law delimits the Karavasta Area and specifies the general zoning of the Area (cf. Figure 6), including the tourist zone on the beach. It prohibits or restricts certain activities incompatible with the conservation objectives of each zone. It is an enabling instrument, conferring clearly-defined jurisdiction and powers on the Management Authority. For these powers to be used, guidance must be provided, and this is the role of the Management Plan, provided for in Article 9 of the proposed law.

The Karavasta Area Protection Law contains five chapters, specifying the delineation and zoning of the protected Area, the institutional framework necessary for the management and conservation of the Area, the management guidelines for activities and processes affecting the Area, and legal enforcement procedures, penalties and transitional provisions.

Figure 5 Zoning of the Ramsar Site According to Decision Nº 413 of 22 August 1994. [not available]

Figure 6 Revised Boundaries and Zones of the Karavasta Area According to the Proposed Karavasta Area Protection Law.

2.2 Specific Information Provided by the Phare Project

2.2.1 Hydrobiology of Karavasta Lagoon

Coastline Dynamics
The comparison of historical maps since 1870 with more recent satellite images reveals that coastal currents and water discharges and sediments carried by the rivers Shkumbini and Semani make the Karavasta area coastline evolve rapidly. The outer Godulla lagoon was created by coastal currents during this century, while the main Karavasta lagoon lost large parts to the intensive land reclamation works. Currently, the southern part of the sand bar separating Godulla lagoon from the Adriatic is eroded. Thus, Godulla lagoon is likely to become an open marine bay, with a southwards progressing sand spit at its northern end. Shkumbini river deposited many sediments creating a progressing sand spit closing off a new lagoon south of the river mouth. However, since winter 1995/96 Shkumbini river enters the Adriatic about 5 km further north. This is likely to inverse the sedimentation rate at the former mouth (cf. Figure 7).

These dynamics imply that it will become increasingly more difficult to keep the link between Karavasta lagoon and the Adriatic, through the northern channel, open. The two southern channels, linking Karavasta lagoon with Godulla lagoon are currently not silted up due to the absence of direct influences of coastal currents. However, with the likely erosion of the largest part of the sand bar separating Godulla lagoon from the Adriatic in the near future, the situation will most probably evolve in a way that Godulla lagoon will disappear, and the central channel, where the fish trap is installed, will definitely become the main link between Karavasta lagoon and the sea.

Hydrodynamics of the Entrance Channels
The tidal flow (0.3 m in this region of the Adriatic) is an important parameter influencing the dynamic equilibrium between erosion and sedimentation in the inlet channels. The ebb and flood flow velocities through an inlet channel depend, for a given tide and lagoon geometry, on the channel length, its cross-section area and shape, and the bottom roughness. With increasing cross-section area flow resistance diminishes and velocity increases to a peak. Beyond that point, velocity decreases with increasing area as flow continuity considerations dominate. There is a critical velocity required to keep an inlet open at a stable equilibrium between cross-section area and velocity.

Calculations of the critical velocity, based on different sediment sizes, show that the northern and central channel, owing to their excessive length (700 m and 1200 m respectively) have a maximum tidal flow velocity only little higher than the critical velocity. In other words, they are likely to silt up without regular dredging. The same configuration could be expected for the central and southern channels in the case of Godulla lagoon opening up to the sea. Important sediment deposits (e.g. after a storm) are therefore likely to obstruct the water inlets rapidly (Technital 1995).

Considerations about Channel Stability and Water Salinity
The lagoon system consists of two communicating basins: the outer Godulla lagoon and the large Karavasta lagoon, connected via two channels (central and southern). Karavasta lagoon has a surface area of approximatively 4,200 ha and an average depth of 0.7 m (maximum 1.3 m), the bathymetry being basically uniform with no bottom channels directing the water flow. The bathymetry of Godulla lagoon is similar, with the exception of the north-eastern part, where a channel has been dredged with a maximum depth of 1.8 m (Crivelli 1996).

Water discharge calculations indicate, that even a complete opening of Godulla lagoon to the Adriatic, would not significantly alter discharge from Karavasta lagoon to the sea, due to the high energy head loss in the connecting channels. Thus, water flow in the system is largely determined by tidal currents and strong winds (Technital 1995).

In summer, high air temperatures increase the evaporation of lagoon water, water exchange between the lagoon and the sea decreases, inflow from the catchment basin is practically nil, and rainfall almost completely negligible. This increases the salt concentration in the remaining water table, with an increasing gradient with increasing distance from the inlets. The cause of this gradient being inflowing sea water with a lower salinity (Technital 1995).

Based on the assumptions of water loss due to evaporation, the maximum salt concentration is reached in October, when the values increase by 50-60 per cent compared to the lowest salinity in January. Simulations of this model confirm that under the present situation, where the water exchange between the sea and Karavasta lagoon is limited, the main factors influencing lagoon water salinity are climatic conditions, especially surface evaporation. With the possible disappearance of Godulla lagoon, and the hypothetical widening of the inlet channels by a factor of 35, annual salinity variations would drop significantly (about by half), according to Technital (1995).

Figure 7 Recent Evolution of the Karavasta Coastline 1982-1994 (taken from Technital 1995). [not available]

Water Salinity Measurements
Information about the lagoon water salinity is scanty and contradictory. Data by Pano & Hysi (1982), analysed in the report by Technital (1995), indicate that during summer the lagoon is hypersaline with salt concentrations varying between 48 and 58 g/l, increasing from the lagoon inlet to its shore. The same source shows that in winter the lagoon.
is brackish, with salt concentrations varying between 19 and 25 g/l, showing an inverted gradient with highest salt concentrations near the inlet, and lower salinities near the shore, due to freshwater inflows from the catchment basin. Field sampling in August 1993 revealed salt concentrations of Karavasta lagoon similar to coastal waters, ranging roughly from 25 to 38 g/l, with an increasing gradient from the inlet to the lagoon shore (Guelorget & Lefebvre 1994). Field sampling executed by the Phare project in June 1996 revealed similar salt concentrations, ranging from 28 to 34 g/l, however, with an inverted gradient increasing from the lagoon shore towards the inlet (Crivelli 1996). The same study revealed a slightly higher salinity of Godulla lagoon, ranging from 33 to 36 g/l.

The Phare study concludes that, in the absence of important tides, predominant winds (e.g. NW sea breeze) can easily push sea water into Karavasta lagoon and are likely to create currents inside the lagoon. Freshwater from the catchment basin is drained into the lagoon from the shore, especially where drainage channels enter the lagoon and where silted-up channels have been deliberately opened to the lagoon (cf. Figure 2). The combined, and varying, influences of inflowing freshwater and wind-driven seawater could explain the reversed salinity gradients recorded by the different studies (according to the prevailing meteorological conditions before and during the different sampling periods). However, to date, the reasons for the large differences in salinities recorded by Pano & Hysi on one hand and by Guelorget & Lefebvre and Crivelli on the other hand are unexplained. Longer-term studies are needed to establish a hydrological model explaining the factors influencing the lagoon water salinity and its periodical changes and evolution in time.

Water Temperature and Fish Kills
Due to the shallowness of Karavasta lagoon, high summer water temperatures (20-30 °C in June 1996) and low winter temperatures are expected. Between 1975 and 1995, there were three winter fish kills. The worst took place in December 1991 and January 1992, when the lagoon was completely frozen. Otherwise, in summer 1995, for the first time fish kills have been observed in some areas of the lagoon, as a consequence of increasing eutrophication (Crivelli 1996).

Sediments
The organic matter produced by lagoons ends up being mineralised by heterotrophic bacteria in the sediment. The sediment acts as a buffer, stocking the organic matter and nutritive salts at certain times of the year and releasing them at others. In this way, the sediment becomes an integrated factor of the lagoon ecosystem.

Most of the core samples taken in Karavasta lagoon contain phanerogam debris under about ten centimetres of pure silt. This mostly silty sediment is well oxygenated on the top few millimetres along the shore and on the top centimetres in the centre of the lagoon. Organic matter makes up between 7 and 18 per cent of the dry weight of the sediment and is most prevalent in the east and centre of the lagoon. A correlation exists between the amount of clay and the amount of organic matter in the sediment. The sediment is largely made up of fine particles, in particular clays which, on average, constitute more than half of the particles. The average level of nitrogen is 4.3 mg/g and of phosphorus is 0.43 mg/g of sediment dry matter. There is a correlation between the level of organic matter and the level of nitrogen, but not between the level of organic matter and the level of phosphorus.

The sediments of Godulla lagoon range from silty to silty sand which is oxygenated at the surface. The sediment is sandy around the central channel between the sea and Karavasta lagoon. Here the organic matter content is an average of 7 per cent of dry sediment. The area least rich in organic matter (2.8 per cent) is on the sandy edges of the outer part of Godulla lagoon north of the central channel (Crivelli 1996).

Assessment of the Trophic Status of Karavasta Lagoon
The productivity of Mediterranean lagoons is a result of their isolation and of the factors which influence them. These influences can come from the sea through channels which only flow seasonally or from the rainwater catchment area. The development of human activities determines the contribution from the rainwater catchment and mainly concerns nutritive salts. Inside Mediterranean lagoons, biochemical cycles govern the exchange of matter between the different elements which make up the ecosystem. These exchanges were mainly governed by climatic factors.

In order to manage these ecosystems, it is important to know in what state they are in. Too many nutritive salts (i.e. eutrophication), often caused by human activities (i.e. urban, industrial, agricultural, aquacultural runoffs) enrich the sediment, thus causing desastrous inbalances during periods of hot weather. Such inbalances, caused by the hyperactivity of bacteria braking down the organic matter, result in a serious drop of oxygen levels which is detrimental to the entire ecosystem and human activities depending on it, either directly (fishing, aquaculture) or indirectly (tourism, nature conservation).

Karavasta lagoon seems to be in a serious state of eutrophication, and the cause is most likely to be found in the catchment area. This situation is worsened by the fact that Godulla lagoon, by its location, acts as a buffer against marine inflows. The sediment profiles sampled in June 1996 indicate that the nutrient inflows from the catchment basin do not seem to be a recent phenomenon, partly due to the fact that a community of plants and algae is buried beneath 10 cm of fine silt, and also due to the relative homogeneity of the profiles. Organic matter is badly mineralised in the sediment of Karavasta lagoon, but much better in Godulla lagoon, where concentrations of organic matter are below 10 per cent due to the significant marine influence. A significant risk of serious hyper-eutrophication exists for the ecosystem of Karavasta lagoon, where temperatures are near 30 °C in June. The ecosystem is only maintained functioning because of persistent winds which re-oxygenate the water body and push the sediment back into suspension (Crivelli 1996).

2.2.2 Biodiversity Conservation Zones

Natural Habitats
An analysis of the distribution of major natural habitat types in the Karavasta area reveals four remaining general classes of natural habitats: brackish and freshwater wetlands, open saltmarshes and grassland, scrub, and woodland. They represent different stages in the colonisation (i.e. succession) of sandy beaches and young dunes by terrestrial vegetation leading towards the development of scrub and woodland. Natural habitats remain essentially in a belt along the coast, including the land strip between the sea, Godulla and Karavasta lagoons. This is the area which is still exposed to the natural dynamics most influenced by coastal storms and river floods. Inland, the natural habitats are replaced by arable land in the reclaimed part of the coastal plain (cf. Figure 8).

The distribution of natural habitat types is not fixed over time, but forms part of the natural dynamics and changes slightly due to vegetation succession. Management of the remaining natural habitats should therefore take a comprehensive approach, assuring that the ecosystems with maximum diversity are least exposed to human interference. In the core zone of the Karavasta area, these are, above all, the old-growth mixed and coniferous forests inside and alongside the Fenced Nature Reserve, and the coastal wetlands and scrubs south of Shkumbini river mouth. In addition, the remaining narrow belt of natural saltmarshes around Karavasta lagoon, the coastal strip from Muzeqe channel south to Hoxhara channel, and the natural parts between the embankments of Shkumbini and Semani rivers separating them from the reclaimed agricultural plain (cf Figure 8).

Woodland
The old-growth forests are in most places dominated by the indigenous Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis). In some areas, especially Kulari north of Tërbufi channel, old-growth umbrella pines (Pinus pinea) form an open canopy over scrub and open ground (somewhat "dehesa" like). Often woodland grows over dune slacks with temporary, or even permanent waters. This water supply is important for a diverse fauna living and hiding in the dense-growth forest, especially in the parts with mixed tree composition alongside the broader wet hollows or on the edge of clearings, with junipers, poplars, willows and tamarisks. Although, traces of human interference (including plantations) remain, given the old-growth of most of the pine forest that forms part of the Divjaka Forest National Park, this habitat has also outstanding biodiversity value. Some patches of endemic species are reported in the forest with the flowers Aster albanicus paparistoi, Orchis albanicus and Orchis x paparisti (Lansdown 1996).

Forest Animals
The most notable fauna species living in the forest habitats are, for their rarety or restricted distribution, Roe Deer (Capreolus europaeus), Horsehoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), European Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus), Syrian Woodpecker (Dendrocopos syriacus), Herrmann's Tortoise (Testudo hemanni) and others (Lansdown 1996). A herd of feral cattle (probably no more than 20) lives in the Fenced Nature Reserve. The animals, about whose history not much is yet known to the authors, resemble much ancient breeds of a rustic, Aurochs-like species and live a very hidden life that merits further investigation (Mix 1996).

Dune Slacks
Relict dune slacks are a typical habitat of the land-spit separating Karavasta lagoon from the sea, comprising linear wet hollows running north-south through the forest and more open areas. Some slacks are particularly species-rich with Alisma, Carex, Cyperus, Euphorbia, Hydrocotyle, Isolepis, Juncus, Limonium, Lycopus, Salmolus and other plants, to name but the most typical genera. South of the northern channel, between Godulla and Karavasta lagoon, the slacks have a more saline character, with elements of the surrounding saltmarshes (Salicornia flats).

Coastal Waters and Lagoons
The coastal temporary waterbodies and permanent lagoons are surrounded by open saltmarshes and dune grasslands of different type, representing different early stages in the vegetation succession from bare sandy beaches to reedbeds, scrub and woodland. These transition zones (ecotones) provide the habitat for several bird species, including Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), Collared Pratincole (Glareola pratincola), Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus), Calandra Lark (Melanocorypha calandra), Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava feldeggi) and the occasional observation of individual Otters (Lutra lutra). Inland of the shore of Karavasta lagoon, such habitats have all but disappeared, due to the intensive land reclamation close up to the lagoon shore.

Figure 8 Natural Habitats in the Karavasta Area between Shkumbini and Semani River Mouths (taken from Lansdown 1996). [not available]

Submerged Macrophytes
According to the sampling undertaken in June 1996, Ruppia cirrhosa is the only underwater angiosperm plant species to be found in Karavasta lagoon. This species, as well as the main macro-algae (Chaetomorpha aerea, Valonia aegagrophyla, Chondria capillaris, Polysiphonia sp. and Ceramium diaphanum) are found on the periphery of the lagoon. Enteromorpha sp. has been recorded in abundance, though very localised in the north of the lagoon near a freshwater inflow pipe. Although the sampling made in Godulla lagoon was only limited, it became apparent that the underwater plant and algae communities of this lagoon are more diverse than the ones of Karavasta lagoon, including Zostera noltii, Ruppia cirrhosa and Cymodocea nodosa and several species of algae.

Ruppia cirrhosa which dominates in Karavasta lagoon is common in Mediterranean brackish waters. The abundance of Zostera noltii, Cymodocea nodosa and the specific composition of algae populations show that there is a more significant marine influence in Godulla than in Karavasta lagoon. This is also manifested in its higher salinity, which is more stable over the course of the year in the outer part of the lagoon, better connected to the sea. In Karavasta lagoon, the topography and the specific composition of the underwater plant and algae communities suggest that the salinity is more variable over time, as a result from freshwater inflows from the catchment and a slower turnover of the water masses.

In Godulla lagoon, the abundance and diversity of angiosperms, as well as the abundance of Cystoseira, Laurentia and Polysiphonia indicate that levels of organic pollution are low. Karavasta lagoon is undergoing a process of eutrophication, where the underwater community is composed entirely of Ruppia cirrhosa, which is very quickly limited by water depth and where nitrogen-loving macro-algae are abundant, particularly Chaetomorpha, but also Enteromorpha. Ruppia is not found at depths larger than 1.2 m in Karavasta lagoon, whereas it forms dense communities at the maximum depth of 1.8 m in Godulla lagoon with Zostera and Cymodocea. This may be explained by the fact, that the low amount of organic matter and the silty sand sediment of Godulla lagoon create more transparent water conditions, that let larger amounts of light penetrate through the water. Competition with Chaetomorpha is also a likely contributing factor to the limitation of Ruppia in Karavasta lagoon.

Significant sources of nutrients seem to flow into Karavasta lagoon through the drainage channels at its northern, eastern and southern shores, as indicated by the abundance of nitrogen-loving macro-algae. The abundance of algae and the levels of nitrogen in the sediment indicate that the eutrophication process is fairly advanced. This makes Karavasta lagoon vulnerable to an increase in the risk of anaerobic crises in the years to come. Until now, such crises have not been serious, probably due to the low level of phosphorus in the sediment. However, the urban developments around the lagoon are likely to increase phosphorus inflows rapidly, if nothing is done to prevent this. On the other hand, there seems to be no eutrophication in Godulla lagoon due to better exchanges with the sea and the filter effect of Karavasta lagoon concerning land-based inflows (Crivelli 1996).

Survey of Breeding Waterbirds and Raptors
The Karavasta Area has a community of breeding waterbirds of outstanding biodiversity value: 22 species of waterbirds have been recorded breeding in the Area (cf. Table 2). According to the quantitative criteria for Ramsar Sites, Karavasta Area is of international importance for two of these: Dalmatian Pelican and Little Tern. Nine of them are Species of European Conservation Concern (SPECs), classified as endangered (Collared Pratincole, Gull-billed Tern), vulnerable (Little and Great Bittern, Dalmatian Pelican [globally threatened], Garganey, Stone Curlew) or declining (Kentish Plover, Little Tern).

In addition to the waterbirds, the coastal and riverine forests in the Karavasta Area harbour a diverse community of breeding raptors, with confirmed breeding of Black Kite (Milvus migrans, classified as vulnerable), Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), and possible breeding of Booted Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus, rare), Short-toed Eagle (Circaetus gallicus, rare) and Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus, breeding in reedbeds and tamarisk scrub).

The coastal sand bar harbours nesting territories of Oystercatcher, Kentish Plover and colonies of Little Terns. Further important nesting sites for territorial and colonial waterbirds are found on islands and islets in Karavasta lagoon, along its shores, in the coastal saltmarshes, lagoon, reedbeds and scrubs near the mouths of Semani and Shkumbini rivers and in the open vegetation north of Karavasta lagoon (cf. Figures 9 and 10).

The Phare study executed during 1995 and 1996 revealed that human disturbance was a major limiting factor of breeding success. Several breeding attempts of Little Tern colonies unvariably failed after human intrusions, revealed by numerous footprints of humans and feral dogs (including broken egg shells) and direct observations. The repeated failures of breeding attempts of Dalmatian Pelicans (globally threatened, vulnerable) and Little Tern (declining) are particularly regrettable, as the Area meets the Ramsar criteria of international importance for these two breeding species. Human intrusion on the islands inside Karavasta lagoon and to the colonies in the coastal areas led to abandonment of breeding colonies and severely reduced breeding success.

Table 2 Population of Breeding Waterbirds in the Karavasta Area 1995-1996 (Hafner 1996).