Key Documents of the Ramsar Convention

Strategic Framework for the List of Wetlands of International Importance, edition 2006

Strategic Framework and guidelines for the future development of the List of Wetlands of International Importance of the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)

Third edition, as adopted by Resolution VII.11 (COP7, 1999) and amended by Resolutions VII.13 (1999), VIII.11 and VIII.33 (COP8, 2002), and IX.1 Annexes A and B (COP9, 2005)

Contents

I. Introduction
II. The vision, objectives and short-term target for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar List)
III. Wetlands of International Importance and the Ramsar principle of wise use
IV. Guidelines for adopting a systematic approach to indentifying priority wetlands for designation under the Ramsar Convention
V. Criteria for identifying Wetlands of International Importance, guidelines for their application, and long-term targets
VI. Guidelines for identifying and designating specific wetland types (karst and other subterranean hydrological systems; peatlands; wet grasslands; mangroves; coral reefs; temporary pools; artificial wetlands)
Appendix A Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS)
Appendix B Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type
Appendix C Criteria for Identifying Wetlands of International Importance
Appendix D Additional guidelines for the provision of maps and other spatial data for Ramsar sites
Appendix E Glossary of terms used in the Strategic Framework

I. Introduction

Background

1. At the time of signing, or when depositing their instrument of ratification or accession to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), sovereign states are required under Article 2.4 to designate at least one site as a Wetland of International Importance. Thereafter, as prescribed by Article 2.1, each "Contracting Party shall designate suitable wetlands within its territory for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance".

2. Assistance with interpreting the key word "suitable", as used in Article 2.1 above, is provided in part by Article 2.2, which states that "wetlands should be selected for the List on account of their international significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology. In the first instance wetlands of international importance to waterfowl at any season should be included."

3. Throughout its evolution, the Convention on Wetlands has developed Criteria for the designation of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar sites) which have been kept under constant review. It has supplemented these with regularly updated Guidelines to assist Contracting Parties with their interpretation and application of the Criteria reflecting the development of conservation science.

4. The strategic direction given to the development of the List of Wetlands of International Importance has previously been rather limited. Most notably, the 6th Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP6) urged Parties through the Convention's Strategic Plan 1997-2002, to "increase the area of wetland designated for the List of Wetlands of International Importance particularly for wetland types that are under-represented either at the global or national levels" (Operational Objective 6.2).

Purpose

5. At the time of COP7 in 1999, as the number of designated Ramsar sites was fast approaching 1,000, the Convention on Wetlands first adopted this Strategic Framework and guidelines for the future development of the List of Wetlands of International Importance and has amended and added to it since. Its purpose is to provide a clearer view, or vision, of the long-term targets or outcomes which the Convention is seeking to achieve through the Ramsar List. Guidance is also provided to assist Contracting Parties in taking a systematic approach to identifying their priorities for future designations, in order to create comprehensive national networks of Ramsar sites, which, when considered at the global level, fulfil the stated vision for the Ramsar List.

II. The vision, objectives and short-term target for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar List)

The vision of the Ramsar List

6. The Convention on Wetlands has adopted the following vision for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (as amended by Resolution IX.1 Annex B, 2005):

The vision

To develop and maintain an international network of wetlands which are important for the conservation of global biological diversity and for sustaining human life through the maintenance of their ecosystem components, processes and benefits/services.

(In this context, 'ecosystem benefits' are defined in accordance with the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment definition of ecosystem services as "the benefits that people receive from ecosystems".)

7. Such an international network of wetland sites has to be built from coherent and comprehensive networks of Wetlands of International Importance established within the territory of each Contracting Party to the Convention.

Objectives for the Ramsar List

8. In order to realise the vision for the Ramsar List described above, the Contracting Parties, the Convention's International Organization Partners, local stakeholders, and the Ramsar Secretariat will work cooperatively towards accomplishing the following four objectives (not necessarily in priority order).

Objective 1
To establish national networks of Ramsar sites in each Contracting Party which fully represent the diversity of wetlands and their key ecological and hydrological functions.

9. 1.1) To have included in the Ramsar List at least one suitable (i.e., internationally important) representative of every natural or near-natural wetland type present in each 'biogeographic region' (see Glossary in Appendix E). These biogeographical regions are as defined globally, supranationally/ regionally or nationally, and applied by the Contracting Party in a form appropriate to that Party.

10. 1.2) To give priority in determining suitable sites in relation to wetland type to those wetlands that play a substantial ecological or hydrological role in the natural functioning of a major river basin, lake, or coastal system.

Objective 2
To contribute to maintaining global biological diversity through the designation and management of appropriate wetland sites.

11. 2.1) To review the development of the Ramsar List and further refine the Criteria for identification and selection of Ramsar sites, as appropriate, to best promote conservation of biological diversity and wise use of wetlands at the local, subnational, national, supranational/ regional, and international levels.

12. 2.2) To include in the Ramsar List wetlands that include threatened ecological communities or are critical to the survival of endemic species identified as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered under national endangered species legislation or programmes or within international frameworks such as the IUCN Red List or Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) and the Appendices of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS or Bonn Convention).

13. 2.3) To include in the Ramsar List wetlands critical to the conservation of biological diversity in each biogeographic region.

14. 2.4) To include in the Ramsar List wetlands that provide important habitat for plant and animal species at critical stages in their life cycle or during adverse conditions.

15. 2.5) To include in the Ramsar List wetlands that are of direct significance for waterbird and fish species or stocks, as well as other taxa, as determined by the relevant Ramsar site selection Criteria (see Section V).

Objective 3
To foster cooperation among Contracting Parties, the Convention's International Organization Partners, and local stakeholders in the selection, designation, and management of Ramsar sites.

16. 3.1) To pursue opportunities between two (or more) Contracting Parties for Ramsar site "twinning" or cooperative management agreements for wetlands along migratory species routes, across common borders, or with similar wetland types or species (Resolution VII.19).

17. 3.2) To undertake other forms of cooperative venture between two or more Contracting Parties that can demonstrate or assist with achieving long-term conservation and sustainable use of Ramsar sites and wetlands in general.

18. 3.3) To encourage and support, where appropriate, a stronger role for and contribution from non-government and community-based organizations in the strategic development of the Ramsar List and subsequent management of Ramsar sites locally, subnationally, nationally, supranationally/ regionally, and internationally (Resolution VII.8).

Objective 4
To use the Ramsar site network as a tool to promote national, supranational/ regional, and international cooperation in relation to complementary environment treaties.

19. 4.1) To use Ramsar sites as baseline and reference areas for national, supranational/ regional, and international environmental monitoring to detect trends in the loss of biological diversity, climate change, and the processes of desertification.

20. 4.2) To implement conservation and sustainable use demonstration projects at Ramsar sites, which will also provide tangible illustrations of cooperation with appropriate international environment treaties such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Convention to Combat Desertification, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, the World Heritage Convention, and the Convention on Migratory Species and its Agreements such as the African-Eurasian (Migratory) Waterbirds Agreement, and regional agreements and cooperative initiatives such as the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, the Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird Conservation Strategy 2001-2005, the Mediterranean Wetlands Initiative (MedWet), South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), Association of the South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the European Union's Natura 2000 network, the Emerald Network of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy, the Wetlands Programme for the High Andes, the Treaty on Amazon Cooperation, the Central American Commission on Environment and Development (CCAD), etc.

Short-term target for the Ramsar List to the year 2010

21. The Convention stresses the importance of wetlands as rich centres of biological diversity and productivity and as life support systems for human populations, and the Parties are concerned at the continuing loss and degradation of wetlands in many parts of the world. In response to this concern, the Parties have set the following short-term target for the Ramsar List.

Target for the Ramsar List in 2010

To ensure that the List of Wetlands of International Importance contains at least 2,500 sites covering 250 million hectares by 2010.

III. Wetlands of International Importance and the Ramsar principle of Wise Use

22. Under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands the two concepts of wise use and site designation are fully compatible and mutually reinforcing. Contracting Parties are expected to designate sites for the List of Wetlands of International Importance "on account of their international significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology" (Article 2.2), AND to "formulate and implement their planning so as to promote the conservation of the wetlands included in the List, and as far as possible the wise use of wetlands in their territory" (Article 3.1).

23. The Strategic Plan adopted at COP6 (1996) equates "wise use" with sustainable use. Contracting Parties to the Convention also recognize that wetlands, through their ecological and hydrological functions, provide invaluable services, products and benefits enjoyed by, and sustaining, human populations. Therefore, the Convention promotes practices that will ensure that all wetlands, and especially those designated for the Ramsar List, will continue to provide these functions and values for future generations as well as for the conservation of biological diversity. Ramsar COP9 (2005) updated the definition of wise of wetlands as "the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development".

Ramsar sites and the wise use principle

The act of designating (listing) under the Convention a wetland as internationally important is an appropriate first step along a conservation and sustainable use pathway, the endpoint of which is achieving the long-term wise (sustainable) use of the site.

24. Article 3.2 of the Convention determines that "each Contracting Party shall arrange to be informed at the earliest possible time if the ecological character of any wetland in its territory and included in the List has changed, is changing or is likely to change". Pursuant to this the Ramsar Convention has developed the concept of "ecological character" for wetlands, which is defined as follows:

"Ecological character is the combination of the ecosystem components, processes and benefits/services that characterise the wetland at a given point in time." (Resolution IX.1 Annex A, 2005)

(In this context, 'ecosystem benefits' are defined in accordance with the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment definition of ecosystem services as "the benefits that people receive from ecosystems".)

25. Contracting Parties are expected to manage their Ramsar sites so as to maintain the ecological character of each site and, in so doing, retain those essential ecological and hydrological functions which ultimately provide its "benefits/services". Ecological character is therefore an indication of the 'health' of the wetland and Contracting Parties are expected at the time of designation to describe the site using the approved Ramsar Information Sheet (Appendix A) in sufficient detail to provide a baseline for subsequent monitoring to detect any changes to these ecological and hydrological attributes. Changes to ecological character outside the natural variations may signal that uses of the sites, or externally derived impacts on the sites, are unsustainable and may lead to the degradation of natural processes and thus the ultimate breakdown of the ecological, biological and hydrological functioning of the wetland.

26. The Ramsar Convention has developed tools for monitoring ecological character and also for the development of management plans for Wetlands of International Importance. In preparing such management plans, which all Contracting Parties have been strongly urged to do, issues such as the impact of human activities on the ecological character of the wetland, the economic and socio-economic values of the site (especially for local communities), and the cultural values associated with the site need to be considered. Contracting Parties have also been strongly encouraged to include within management plans a regime for regular and rigorous monitoring to detect changes in ecological character (Resolution VII.10).

IV. Guidelines for adopting a systematic approach to identifying priority wetlands for designation under the Ramsar Convention

27. The Introduction to this Strategic Framework states that its purpose is to provide a clearer understanding, or vision, of the long-term targets or outcomes which the Ramsar Convention is seeking to achieve through the List of Wetlands of International Importance.

28. In the section below, guidance is provided to assist Contracting Parties in taking a systematic approach to identifying priorities for future designations, in order to create coherent, comprehensive national networks of Ramsar sites which, when considered as a global network, will help to fulfil the vision for the Ramsar List.

29. When developing and implementing a systematic approach to identifying the priority wetlands for designation as Ramsar sites, Contracting Parties are urged to consider the following issues.

30. Review national objectives. As a precursor to developing a systematic approach for identifying future Ramsar sites, Contracting Parties are urged to give careful consideration to the Objectives described in Section II of this Strategic Framework. When considered within the context of the vision and long-term targets for the List of Wetlands of International Importance, these objectives provide a basis for all subsequent considerations in this area.

31. Wetland definition, types and biogeographic regions. For each Contracting Party it is important to reach an understanding at the national level of how the Ramsar definition of a wetland is to be interpreted and on the biogeographic regionalisation to be applied. The Ramsar definition of "wetland" is very broad, reflecting the global scale of the Convention, and gives Contracting Parties great scope and flexibility for ensuring compatibility between national, supranational/ regional, and international wetland conservation efforts.

The Ramsar definition of "wetland"

"Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres" (Article 1.1). In addition Ramsar sites "may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands" (Article 2.1).

Importantly, the Convention aims at the listing of natural or semi-natural wetlands, but also allows for the designation of purpose-built, or human-made, wetlands, assuming they satisfy at least one of the Criteria specified in Section V. The Convention's classification system for wetland type (see Appendix B) indicates the full range which Contracting Parties are urged to consider in relation to possible listing under the Ramsar Criteria related to representative, rare or unique wetlands (see Section V, Criterion 1).

32. Under Criterion 1, Contracting Parties are expected to identify sites of international importance within an agreed biogeographic regionalisation. The Glossary (Appendix E) defines this term as "a scientifically rigorous determination of regions as established using biological and physical parameters such as climate, soil type, vegetation cover, etc." Note that for many Contracting Parties, biogeographic regions will be transboundary in nature and will require collaboration between countries to define those wetland types which are representative, unique, etc. In some regions and countries, the term "bioregion" is used as a synonym for "biogeographic region".

33. Inventories and data. Contracting Parties are urged to establish the extent and quality of information which has been collected on wetlands within their territory and take steps to complete an inventory if this has not been done. Inventories should be undertaken using accepted models and standards as advocated by the Ramsar Convention (see Resolutions VII.20 and VIII.6). The lack of an inventory should not, however, prevent designations where adequate information is already available for some sites.

34. Consistent with the developing scientific knowledge of the status and distribution of wetlands, their associated plants and animals, and their functions and values, national wetland inventories and/or lists of potential Ramsar sites should be subject to periodic review and updating (Action 1.2.1 of the Ramsar Strategic Plan 2003-2008).

35. Territory of the Contracting Parties and transfrontier situations. Wetland inventories should be certain to take into consideration all parts of the territory of the Contracting Party. In accordance with Article 5 of the Convention and the Guidelines for international cooperation under the Ramsar Convention (Resolution VII.19, 1999), special consideration should be given to identifying and designating transfrontier sites.

36. Supranational/regional level guidance. Contracting Parties should also be aware that in some instances they may require more detailed guidance at the supranational/ regional level in establishing the relative importance of sites for possible designations. This may apply in the following situations:

i) where plant or animals species do not occur in large concentrations (such as migratory waterbirds in northern latitudes) within the country; or
ii) where collection of data is difficult (particularly in very large countries); or
iii) where there may be a high degree of spatial and temporal variability of rainfall - particularly in semi-arid or arid zones - resulting in dynamic use of complexes of temporary wetlands within and between years by waterbirds and other mobile species and where the patterns of such dynamic use are insufficiently known; or
iv) where, for certain types of wetland such as peatlands, coral reefs, karst and other subterranean hydrological systems, there may be limited national expertise as to the range and significance of international variation (see Section VI for additional guidance for the identification and designation of specific wetland types); or
v) where several biogeographic regions come together and the transition zones may have high levels of biological diversity.

37. Considering all of the Ramsar Criteria and all species. Contracting Parties are urged to consider all of the Criteria fully when developing a systematic approach. Article 2.2 of the Convention indicates that sites should be considered on the basis of their "ecology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology". Under the Ramsar Criteria, this is further clarified in terms of wetland type and conservation of biological diversity.

38. Contracting Parties should also aim to use the Criteria appropriately, meaning that although specific criteria have been developed for waterbirds (Criteria 5 and 6) and for fish (Criteria 7 and 8), these are not the only wetland taxa for which Ramsar sites can and should be listed (see Criterion 9). Waterbirds and fish are simply the ones for which specific guidance has been most fully developed. Criteria 2, 3 and 4 provide latitude to identify sites for any other wetland species, but also for waterbirds and fish, where appropriate. There is also a risk that less obvious species and the microbiota may be overlooked in these considerations and care should be exercised to ensure that all components of biological diversity are taken into consideration.

39. Prioritising. Having systematically applied the Criteria to develop a list of wetlands that qualify for designation, Contracting Parties are encouraged to identify priority candidate sites. Particular weight should be given to designating sites which include wetland types, or wetland species, that are either unique/endemic to the Contracting Party (found nowhere else in the world) or for which that country holds a significant proportion of the total global extent of a wetland type or population of a wetland species.

40. Smaller sites should not be overlooked. In developing a systematic approach to Ramsar site designation, Contracting Parties are encouraged to recognize that potential Ramsar sites are not necessarily the largest wetlands within the territory. Some wetland types either never were or are no longer found as large wetland systems, and these should not be overlooked. They may be especially important in maintaining habitat or ecological community-level biological diversity.

41. Legal protected area status. Contracting Parties should be aware that Ramsar site designation does not require that the wetland in question must enjoy any type of previously conferred protected areas status or must necessarily acquire this after designation. Likewise, wetlands being considered for designation need not be pristine areas which have not been subjected to impacts from human activities. In fact, Ramsar designation can be used to confer a special type of recognition on these areas by virtue of elevating them to the status of sites recognized as internationally important. In this way, Ramsar designation could represent the starting point for a process of recovery and rehabilitation of a particular site, provided the site meets the Criteria for listing under the Convention when nominated.

42. While the existing protected area status of a site should not be a factor in determining priorities for listing, Contracting Parties are urged to be mindful of the need for consistency in approach when officially designating wetland sites under international conventions and treaties as well as national policy or legal instruments. If a wetland site gains national protected area status because it provides critical habitat for an endemic wetland-dependent species, the Criterion indicates that it will qualify as a Ramsar site. Contracting Parties are therefore urged to review all of their current, proposed and future protected areas to ensure that consistency is applied.

43. Flagship and keystone species. The concepts of indicator, flagship and keystone species are important for Contracting Parties to consider as well. The presence of "indicator" species can be a useful measure of good wetland quality. Well-known "flagship" species can also have great symbolic and awareness-raising value for wetland conservation and wise use, whereas "keystone" species play vital ecological roles. Wetlands with significant populations of indicator, flagship and/or keystone species may merit special consideration as sites of international importance.

44. Species presence in perspective. When applying population figures to establish the relative importance of sites for designation, Contracting Parties should take care to put these within an appropriate context. It may be that in terms of relative importance for biological diversity conservation, a site providing habitat for a rare species is a higher priority for listing and subsequent management action than a site which has larger numbers of a more common species.

45. Non-native species. The introduction and spread of non-native species is of great concern due to the impact this can have on the biological diversity and natural functioning of wetland ecosystems (see Resolutions VII.14 and VIII.18 on invasive species and wetlands). It follows, therefore, that the presence of introduced or non-native species should not be used to support a case for designating a site as a Wetland of International Importance. In some circumstances native species can also be considered invasive to wetlands due to the disruption and imbalances they can introduce into the ecosystem. It is possible for introduced non-native species to be rare or endangered in their native habitats. Such situations need to be carefully assessed by the Contracting Party.

46. Less visible interests should not be overlooked. Fish are not only an integral part of aquatic ecosystems, but are a vital source of food and income for people throughout the world. However, the production of fisheries in many parts of the world is declining as a consequence of unsustainable harvest regimes and the loss and degradation of habitats including spawning and nursery areas. Underwater species such as fish and other aquatic fauna and flora can often be overlooked in the development of cases for Ramsar site designation, unlike more visible animals and plants. Such aquatic interests should be carefully and systematically reviewed.

47. Boundary definition of sites. When designating sites, Contracting Parties are encouraged to take a management-oriented approach to determining boundaries, recognizing that these should allow management of the site to be undertaken at the appropriate scale for maintaining the ecological character of the wetland. Article 2.1 of the Convention indicates that Ramsar sites "may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands". For very small and therefore potentially vulnerable sites, Contracting Parties are encouraged to include buffer zones around the wetland. These may also be a useful management tool for subterranean system wetlands as well as larger sites.

48. In determining the boundaries of sites identified as habitat for animal species, these should be established so as to provide adequately for all the ecological and conservation requirements of those populations. In particular, large animals, species at the top of food chains, those with large home-ranges, or with feeding and resting areas that are widely separated, will generally require substantial areas to support viable populations. If it is not possible to designate a site extending to the entire range used or accommodating viable (self-sustaining) populations, then additional measures relating to both the species and its habitat should be adopted in the surrounding areas (or the buffer zone). These measures will complement the protection of the core habitat within the Ramsar site.

49. While some sites considered for designation will be identified at landscape scale, containing substantial elements of whole wetland ecosystems, others may be smaller. In selecting and delimiting such more restricted wetlands the following guidance may assist in determining their extent:

i) As far as possible, sites should include complexes or mosaics of vegetation communities, not just single communities of importance. Note that wetlands with naturally nutrient poor (oligotrophic) conditions generally exhibit low diversity of species and habitats. In these wetlands, high diversity may be associated with low conservation quality (indicated by markedly altered conditions). Thus, diversity must always be considered within the context of the norms of the wetland type.

ii) Zonations of communities should be included as completely as possible in the site. Important are communities showing natural gradients (transitions), for instance from wet to dry, from salt to brackish, from brackish to fresh, from oligotrophic to eutrophic, from rivers to their associated banks, shingle bars and sediment systems, etc.

iii) Natural succession of vegetation communities often proceeds rapidly in wetlands. To the greatest extent possible and where these exist, all phases of succession (for example, from open shallow water, to communities of emergent vegetation, to reedswamp, to marshland or peatland, to wet forest) should be included in designated sites. Where dynamic changes are occurring, it is important that the site is large enough so that pioneer stages can continue to develop within the Ramsar site.

iv) Continuity of a wetland with a terrestrial habitat of high conservation value will enhance its own conservation value.

50. The smaller the site, the more vulnerable it is likely to be to outside influences. In determining boundaries of Ramsar sites, particular attention should be given to ensuring that wherever possible the limits of the sites serve to protect them from potentially damaging activities, especially those likely to cause hydrological disturbance. Ideally, boundaries should include those areas of land necessary to provide and maintain the hydrological functions needed to conserve the international importance and integrity of the site. Alternatively, it is important that planning processes are operating to ensure that potential negative impacts arising from land-use practices on adjoining land or within the drainage basin are suitably regulated and monitored to provide confidence that the ecological character of the Ramsar site will not be compromised.

51. Site clusters. Clusters of small sites, or individual small "satellite" sites associated with larger areas, should be considered for listing where these are:

i) component parts of a hydrologically linked system (e.g., a complex of valley mires, or system of groundwater-fed wetlands along a spring line, or karst and subterranean wetland systems); and/or

ii) linked in their use by a common population of animal (e.g., a group of alternative roost or feeding areas used by one population of waterbirds); and/or

iii) formerly geographically continuous before being separated by human activity; and/or

iv) otherwise ecologically interdependent (e.g., sites forming part of a distinct wetland district/ landscape with a common developmental history and/or supporting discrete species populations); and/or

v) found in arid or semi-arid zones, where complexes of dispersed wetlands (sometimes of a non-permanent nature) can both individually and collectively be of very great importance for both biological diversity and human populations (e.g., essential links in incompletely known chains).

52. Where a cluster of sites is designated, the Ramsar Information Sheet should state clearly the rationale for treating the component parts collectively as one listed site.

53. Sites of importance for the interactions between the ecosystem structure and functioning and their benefits. Wetlands exist within landscapes in which people's activities are influenced by the wetlands and their delivery of ecosystem benefits/services, and in which the wetlands themselves are influenced by the use of such benefits/services by dependent local communities (e.g., by forms of traditional management). There are many examples where the ecosystem structure and functioning of the wetland has developed as a result of cultural features or legacies. There are also many examples where the maintenance of the ecosystem structure and functioning of wetlands depends upon the interaction between human activities and the wetland's biological, chemical, and physical components.

54. Complementary international frameworks. When considering Ramsar site designations Contracting Parties are urged, as specified in Objective 4.2 (see paragraph 20), to consider the opportunities this may also provide for contributing to other established and developing initiatives under related international and regional environment conventions and programmes. This applies in particular to the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on Migratory Species and its Agreements, such as the African-Eurasian Waterbirds Agreement. Regionally, this may apply to cooperative initiatives such as the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, the Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird Conservation Strategy 2001-2005, the Mediterranean Wetlands Initiative (MedWet), the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), the Association of the South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the European Union's Natura 2000 network, the Emerald Network of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy, the Wetlands Programme for the High Andes, the Treaty on Amazon Cooperation, the Central American Commission on Environment and Development (CCAD), etc.

V. Criteria for identifying Wetlands of International Importance, guidelines for their application, and long-term targets

55. In this Section of the Strategic Framework for the Ramsar List, the Criteria for designating sites are presented, along with the long-term target the Convention has agreed for each. For each Criterion, guidelines are also provided to assist Contracting Parties in taking a systematic approach to identifying their priority sites for designation. These guidelines should be considered in conjunction with the more general guidelines given in Section IV. In addition, Appendix E provides a Glossary of the terms used in the Criteria, long-term targets and guidelines presented in the following pages.

Criteria for the designation of Wetlands of International Importance

Group A of the Criteria: Sites containing representative,
rare or unique wetland types

Criterion 1:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

56. To have included in the Ramsar List at least one suitable representative of each wetland type, according to the Ramsar classification system (Section IV), which is found within each biogeographic region.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 1

57. In applying this Criterion systematically, Contracting Parties are encouraged to:

i) determine biogeographic regions within their territory or at the supranational/ regional level;
ii) within each biogeographic region, determine the range of wetland types present (using the Ramsar classification system for wetland type, Appendix B), noting in particular any rare or unique wetland types; and
iii) for each wetland type within each biogeographic region, identify for designation under the Convention those sites which provide the best examples.

58. When selecting a biogeographic regionalisation scheme to apply, it is generally most appropriate to use a continental, regional, or supranational scheme rather than a national or subnational one.

59. Objective 1, and in particular 1.2 (paragraph 10 above), indicates that another consideration under this Criterion is to give priority to those wetlands whose ecological character plays a substantial role in the natural functioning of a major river basin or coastal system. In terms of hydrological functioning, the following is provided to assist Contracting Parties consider this aspect of determining priority sites under this Criterion. For guidance relevant to biological and ecological roles refer to Criterion 2.

60. Hydrological importance. As indicated by Article 2 of the Convention, wetlands can be selected for their hydrological importance which, inter alia, may include the following attributes. They may:

i) play a major role in the natural control, amelioration or prevention of flooding;
ii) be important for seasonal water retention for wetlands or other areas of conservation importance downstream;
iii) be important for the recharge of aquifers;
iv) form part of karst or underground hydrological or spring systems that supply major surface wetlands;
v) be major natural floodplain systems;
vi) have a major hydrological influence in the context of at least regional climate regulation or stability (e.g., certain areas of cloudforest or rainforest, wetlands or wetland complexes in semi-arid, arid or desert areas, tundra or peatland systems acting as sinks for carbon, etc.);
vii) have a major role in maintaining high water quality standards.

Group B of the Criteria: Sites of international importance for conserving biological diversity

Criteria based on species and ecological communities

Criterion 2:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

61. To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which are believed to be important for the survival of vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 2

62. Ramsar sites have an important role in the conservation of globally threatened species and ecological communities. Notwithstanding the small numbers of individuals or sites that may be involved, or poor quality of quantitative data or information that may sometimes be available, particular consideration should be given to listing wetlands that support globally threatened communities or species at any stage of their life cycle using Criterion 2 or 3.

63. Objective 2.2 within this Strategic Framework urges Contracting Parties to seek to include in the Ramsar List wetlands that include threatened ecological communities or are critical to the survival of species identified as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered under national endangered species legislation/programmes or within international frameworks such as the IUCN Red Lists or Appendix I of CITES and the Appendices of CMS.

64. When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a network of sites providing habitat for rare, vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species. Ideally, the sites in the network will have the following characteristics. They:

i) support a mobile population of a species at different stages of its life cycle; and/or
ii) support a population of a species along a migratory pathway or flyway - noting that different species have different migratory strategies with different maximum distances needed between staging areas; and/or
iii) are ecologically linked in other ways, such as through providing refuge areas to populations during adverse conditions; and/or
iv) are adjacent to or in close proximity to other wetlands included in the Ramsar List, the conservation of which enhances the viability of threatened species' population by increasing the size of habitat that is protected; and/or
v) hold a high proportion of the population of a dispersed sedentary species that occupies a restricted habitat type.

65. For identifying sites with threatened ecological communities, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of sites with ecological communities that have one or more of the following characteristics. They:

i) are globally threatened communities or communities at risk from direct or indirect drivers of change, particularly where these are of high quality or particularly typical of the biogeographic region; and/or
ii) are rare communities within a biogeographic region; and/or
iii) include ecotones, seral stages, and communities which exemplify particular processes; and/or
iv) can no longer develop under contemporary conditions (because of climate change or anthropogenic interference, for example); and/or
v) are at the contemporary stage of a long developmental history and support a well-preserved paleoenvironmental archive; and/or
vi) are functionally critical to the survival of other (perhaps rarer) communities or particular species; and/or
vii) have been the subject of significant decline in extent or occurrence.

66. When selecting a biogeographic regionalisation scheme to apply under paragraph 65 (i) and/or (ii), it is generally most appropriate to use a continental, regional, or supranational scheme rather than a national or subnational one.

67. Note also the issues concerning habitat diversity and succession in paragraphs 47 to 50 above, "Boundary definition of sites".

68. Be aware also of the biological importance of many karst and other subterranean hydrological systems (see specific guidance below).

Criterion 3:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

69. To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which are believed to be of importance for maintaining the biological diversity within each biogeographic region.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 3

70. When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a suite of sites that have the following characteristics. They:

i) are "hotspots" of biological diversity and are evidently species-rich even though the number of species present may not be accurately known; and/or
ii) are centres of endemism or otherwise contain significant numbers of endemic species; and/or
iii) contain the range of biological diversity (including habitat types) occurring in a region; and/or
iv) contain a significant proportion of species adapted to special environmental conditions (such as temporary wetlands in semi-arid or arid areas); and/or
v) support particular elements of biological diversity that are rare or particularly characteristic of the biogeographic region.

71. Be aware also of the biological importance of many karst and other subterranean hydrological systems (see specific guidance below).

72. When selecting a biogeographic regionalisation scheme to apply, it is generally most appropriate to use a continental, regional, or supranational scheme rather than a national or subnational one.

Criterion 4:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

73. To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which are the most important for providing habitat for plant or animal species during critical stages of their life cycle and/or when adverse conditions prevail.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 4

74. Critical sites for mobile or migratory species are those which contain particularly high proportions of populations gathered in relatively small areas at particular stages of life cycles. This may be at particular times of the year or, in semi-arid or arid areas, during years with a particular rainfall pattern. For example, many waterbirds use relatively small areas as key staging points (to eat and rest) on their long-distance migrations between breeding and non-breeding areas. For Anatidae species, moulting sites are also critical. Sites in semi-arid or arid areas may hold very important concentrations of waterbirds and other mobile wetland species and be crucial to the survival of populations, yet may vary greatly in apparent importance from year-to-year as a consequence of considerable variability in rainfall patterns.

75. Non-migratory wetland species are unable to move away when climatic or other conditions become unfavourable and only some sites may feature the special ecological characteristics to sustain species' populations in the medium or long term. Thus in dry periods, some crocodile and fish species retreat to deeper areas or pools within wetland complexes, as the extent of suitable aquatic habitat diminishes. These restricted areas are critical for the survival of animals at that site until rains come and increase the extent of wetland habitat once more. Sites (often with complex ecological, geomorphological and physical structures) which perform such functions for non-migratory species are especially important for the persistence of populations and should be considered as priority candidates for listing.

Specific criteria based on waterbirds

Criterion 5:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

76. To have included in the Ramsar List all wetlands which regularly support 20,000 or more waterbirds.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 5

77. When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a network of sites that provide habitat for waterbird assemblages containing globally threatened species or subspecies. These are currently poorly represented in the Ramsar List. (Refer also to paragraph 44 above, "Species presence in perspective".)

78. Non-native waterbirds should not be included within the totals for a particular site (refer also to paragraph 45 above, "Non-native species").

79. Criterion 5 should be applied not only to multi-species assemblages, but also to sites regularly holding more than 20,000 waterbirds of any one species. For populations of waterbirds of more than 2,000,000 individuals, a 1% threshold of 20,000 is adopted on the basis that sites holding this number are of importance under Criterion 5. To reflect the importance of the site for the species concerned, it is also appropriate to list such a site under Criterion 6.

80. This Criterion will apply to wetlands of varying size in different Contracting Parties. While it is impossible to give precise guidance on the size of an area in which these numbers may occur, wetlands identified as being of international importance under Criterion 5 should form an ecological unit, and may thus be made up of one big area or a group of smaller wetlands. Refer also to paragraphs 51 and 52 above, "Site clusters". Consideration may also be given to turnover of waterbirds at migration periods, so that a cumulative total is reached, if such data are available.

81. Turnover of individuals, especially during migration periods, leads to more waterbirds using particular wetlands than are counted at any one point in time, such that the importance of such a wetland for supporting waterbird populations will often be greater than is apparent from simple census information.

82. However, accurate estimation of turnover and total number of individuals of a population or populations using a wetland is difficult, and several methods (e.g. cohort marking and resighting, or summing increases in a count time-series) which have at times been applied do not yield statistically reliable or accurate estimates.

83. The only currently available method which is considered to provide reliable estimates of turnover is that of unique capture/marking and resighting/recapture of individually-marked birds in a population at a migratory staging site. But it is important to recognize that for this method to generate a reliable estimate of migration volume, its application usually requires significant capacity and resources, and for large and/or inaccessible staging areas (especially where birds in a population are widely dispersed) use of this method can present insuperable practical difficulties.

84. When turnover is known to occur in a wetland but it is not possible to acquire accurate information on migration volume, Parties should continue to consider recognizing the importance of the wetland as a migratory staging area through the application of Criterion 4, as the basis for ensuring that their management planning for the site fully recognizes this importance.

Criterion 6:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

85. To have included in the Ramsar List all wetlands which regularly support 1% or more of a biogeographical population of a waterbird species or subspecies.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 6

86. When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a suite of sites that hold populations of globally threatened species or subspecies. Refer also to paragraph 44 above, "Species presence in perspective", and paragraph 54 above, "Complementary international frameworks". Consideration may also be given to turnover of waterbirds at migration periods, so that a cumulative total is reached, if such data are available.

87. To ensure international comparability, wherever possible Contracting Parties should use the international population estimates and 1% thresholds published and updated every three years by Wetlands International as the basis for evaluating sites for the List using this Criterion. As urged by Resolutions VI.4 (1996) and Resolution VIII.38 (2002) for the better application of this Criterion, Contracting Parties should not only supply data for the future update and revision of international waterbird population estimates, but should also support the national implementation and development of Wetlands International's International Waterbird Census, which is the source of much of these data.

88. At some sites, more than one biogeographical population of the same species can occur, especially during migration periods and/or where flyway systems of different populations intersect at major wetlands. Where such populations are indistinguishable in the field, as is usually the case, this can present practical problems as to which 1% threshold to apply. Where such mixed populations occur (and these are inseparable in the field), it is suggested that the larger 1% threshold be used in the evaluation of sites.

89. However, particularly where one of the populations concerned is of high conservation status, this guidance should be applied flexibly and Parties should consider recognizing the overall importance of the wetland for both populations through the application of Criterion 4, as the basis for ensuring that their management planning for the site fully recognizes this importance. This guidance should not be applied to the detriment of smaller, high conservation status populations.

90. Note that this guidance applies just during the period of population mixing (which is often, but not exclusively, during periods of migration). At other times, it is generally possible to assign a 1% threshold accurately to the single population that is present.

91. Turnover of individuals, especially during migration periods, leads to more waterbirds using particular wetlands than are counted at any one point in time, such that the importance of such a wetland for supporting waterbird populations will often be greater than is apparent from simple census information. For further guidance on estimation of turnover see the guidance under Criterion 5, paragraphs 81-84.

Specific criteria based on fish

Criterion 7:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

92. To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands that support a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families and populations.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 7

93. Fishes are the most abundant vertebrates associated with wetlands. Worldwide, over 18,000 species of fishes are resident for all or part of their life cycles in wetlands.

94. Criterion 7 indicates that a wetland can be designated as internationally important if it has a high diversity of fishes and shellfishes. It emphasises the different forms that diversity might take, including the number of taxa, different life-history stages, species interactions, and the complexity of interactions between the above taxa and the external environment. Species counts alone are thus not sufficient to assess the importance of a particular wetland. In addition, the different ecological roles that species may play at different stages in their life cycles needs to be considered.

95. Implicit in this understanding of biological diversity is the importance of high levels of endemism and of biodisparity. Many wetlands are characterised by the highly endemic nature of their fish fauna.

96. Some measure of the level of endemism should be used to distinguish sites of international importance. If at least 10% of fish are endemic to a wetland, or to wetlands in a natural grouping, that site should be recognized as internationally important, but the absence of endemic fishes from a site should not disqualify it if it has other qualifying characteristics. In some wetlands, such as the African Great Lakes, Lake Baikal in the Russian Federation, Lake Titicaca in Bolivia/Peru, sinkholes and cave lakes in arid regions, and lakes on islands, endemism levels as high as 90-100% may be reached, but 10% is a practical figure for worldwide application. In areas with no endemic fish species, the endemism of genetically-distinct infraspecific categories, such as geographical races, should be used.

97. According to the 2006 IUCN Red List, 1,173 species of fish are globally threatened, and 93 species are extinct or extinct in the wild. The occurrence of rare or threatened fish is catered for in Criterion 2.

98. An important component of biological diversity is biodisparity, i.e., the range of morphologies and reproductive styles in a community. The biodisparity of a wetland community will be determined by the diversity and predictability of its habitats in time and space, i.e., the more heterogeneous and unpredictable the habitats, the greater the biodisparity of the fish fauna. For example, Lake Malawi, a stable, ancient lake, has over 600 fish species of which 92% are maternal mouthbrooding cichlids, but only a few fish families. In contrast, the Okavango Swamp of Botswana, a palustrine floodplain that fluctuates between wet and dry phases, has only 60 fish species but a wider variety of morphologies and reproductive styles, and many fish families, and therefore has a greater biodisparity. Measures of both biological diversity and biodisparity should be used to assess the international importance of a wetland.

Criterion 8:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

99. To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which provide important food sources for fishes, or are spawning grounds, nursery areas and/or on their migration path.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 8

100. Many fishes (including shellfishes) have complex life histories, with spawning, nursery and feeding grounds widely separated and long migrations necessary between them. It is important to conserve all those areas that are essential for the completion of a fish's life cycle if the fish species or stock is to be maintained. The productive, shallow habitats offered by coastal wetlands (including coastal lagoons, estuaries, saltmarshes, inshore rocky reefs, and sandy slopes) are extensively used as feeding and spawning grounds and nurseries by fishes with openwater adult stages. These wetlands therefore support essential ecological processes for fish stocks, even if they do not necessarily harbour large adult fish populations themselves.

101. Furthermore, many fishes in rivers, swamps or lakes spawn in one part of the ecosystem but spend their adult lives in other inland waters or in the sea. It is common for fishes in lakes to migrate up rivers to spawn, and for fishes in rivers to migrate downstream to a lake or estuary, or beyond the estuary to the sea, to spawn. Many swamp fishes migrate from deeper, more permanent waters to shallow, temporarily inundated areas for spawning. Wetlands, even apparently insignificant ones in one part of a river system, may therefore be vital for the proper functioning of extensive river reaches up- or downstream of the wetland.

102. This is for guidance only and does not interfere with the rights of Contracting Parties to regulate fisheries within specific wetlands and/or elsewhere.

Specific criterion based on other taxa

Criterion 9:
A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal species.

Long-term target for the Ramsar List:

103. To have included in the Ramsar List all wetlands which regularly support 1% or more of a biogeographical population of one non-avian animal species or subspecies.

Guidelines for the application of Criterion 9

104. When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a suite of sites that hold populations of globally threatened species or subspecies. Refer also to paragraph 45 above, "Species presence in perspective", and paragraph 54 above, "Complementary international frameworks". Consideration may also be given to turnover of individuals of migratory animals at migration periods, so that a cumulative total is reached, if such data are available (guidance in paragraphs 81-84 related to waterbirds is also applicable in relation to non-avian animals).

105. To ensure international comparability, wherever possible Contracting Parties should use the most current international population estimates and 1% thresholds provided and regularly updated by IUCN's Specialist Groups though the IUCN Species Information Service (SIS) and published in the Ramsar Technical Report series, as the basis for evaluating sites for the List using this Criterion. [Note: An initial listing is provided as an adjunct to the RIS Explanatory Note and Guidelines, http://ramsar.org/ris/key_ris_criterion9_2006.pdf.]

106. This Criterion can also be applied to nationally endemic species or populations, where reliable national population size estimates exist. When making such an application of the Criterion, information concerning the published source of the population size estimate should be included in the justification for the application of this Criterion. Such information can also contribute to expanding the taxonomic coverage of the information on population estimates and 1% thresholds published in the Ramsar Technical Report series.

107. It is anticipated that this Criterion will be applicable to populations and species in a range of non-avian taxa including, inter alia, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish and aquatic macro-invertebrates. However, only species or subspecies for which reliable population estimates have been provided and published (paragraphs 105-106) should be included in the justification for the application of this Criterion. Where no such information exists, Contracting Parties should give consideration to designation for important non-avian animal species under Criterion 4. For better application of this Criterion, Contracting Parties should assist, where possible, in the supply of such data to the IUCN-Species Survival Commission and its Specialist Groups in support of the future updating and revision of international population estimates.

VI. Guidelines for identifying and designating specific wetland types

A. Guidelines for identifying and designating karst and other subterranean hydrological systems as Wetlands of International Importance (Resolution VII.13)

108. The Values of karst wetlands are numerous. In accordance with Article 2.2 of the Ramsar Convention, "wetlands should be selected for the List on account of their international significance in terms of biology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology". From this perspective the principal wetland conservation values of karst and other subterranean hydrological systems include:

a) uniqueness of karst phenomena/functions and functioning;
b) inter-dependency and fragility of karst systems and their hydrological and hydrogeological characteristics;
c) uniqueness of these ecosystems and endemism of their species;
d) importance for conserving particular taxa of fauna and flora.

109. In addition to their many natural values, karst systems also have important socio-economic values, which include (but are not limited to) the supply of drinking water, water for grazing animals or agriculture, tourism and recreation. Karst wetland systems may play an especially vital role in ensuring adequate water supplies for human communities in generally dry surface landscapes.

110. Threats can be generated within or outside of the karst area. In general terms, many "living" karst areas are wetlands, whether surface or subterranean. The subterranean systems are, in many cases, still well-preserved, but due to increasing development pressures they are becoming endangered. The pressures are both direct (visitors to caves, researchers) and indirect, including pollution of all kinds (particularly water pollution; dumping of solid waste, sewage; development of infrastructure, etc.), water abstraction, retention in reservoirs and other uses.

111. To avoid confusion in terminology, the formulations "karst and other subterranean hydrological systems" and "subterranean wetlands" should be used throughout. Regardless of genesis, these terms should be used to include all subterranean cavities and voids with water (including ice caves). Such sites would be eligible for inclusion in the Ramsar List whenever the site selection Criteria are fulfilled. These terms should also clearly cover coastal, inland and human-made subterranean sites, following the broad approach of the Ramsar definition of "wetland" and thereby offering a high degree of flexibility for each Contracting Party.

112. The specialised technical terminology used to describe karst and other subterranean phenomena makes a glossary indispensable for non-experts. UNESCO's Glossary and Multilingual Equivalents of Karst Terms (UNESCO, 1972) can be used as a detailed source of reference, but a simplified glossary is proposed for Ramsar purposes and is provided in the Glossary (see Appendix E) under "Karst".

113. Information provided for the purposes of Ramsar site designation and management of subterranean wetlands should be according to:

a) what is available (in many cases this may be limited, and subject to future research efforts); and

b) what is appropriate for the scale being considered. For example, local and national management authorities should have access to the full range and detail of information available, whilst a summary will normally suffice for international purposes, notably completion of the Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS).

114. Ramsar designation should be considered as part of a mosaic of national and international instruments. In this way, the most representative part(s) of larger karst/subterranean systems might be designated under the Ramsar Convention, with land-use planning controls, etc., applied to achieve "wise use" of the whole system and its catchment area.

115. Site survey and mapping may present special problems and should be done according to practical possibilities. For example, a two-dimensional ground plan of subterranean features, projected against surface features, would suffice as a Ramsar site map. It is recognized that many Contracting Parties will not have the resources to generate three-dimensional representations of subterranean sites, and the lack of such resources should not be a barrier to designation.

116. Optimal boundaries for karst/subterranean Ramsar sites would cover whole catchments, but this is unlikely to be realistic in most cases. Site boundaries should, however, cover the areas which have the most significant direct or indirect impacts on the features of interest.

117. In applying the Ramsar Criteria for Identifying Wetlands of International Importance, special attention should be given to unique and representative hydrological, hydrogeological, biological and landscape values. In this regard, intermittent karst and thermal springs can be of special interest.

118. The flexible approach of the Convention allows countries to choose the most appropriate boundaries for national or site-specific situations. In particular, designation of either or both single cave and complex systems (for example, with surface and subterranean wetlands) can be envisaged.

119. The Ramsar definition of wetlands (Article 1.1) should be read/understood to include surface and subterranean wetlands, although the Convention text does not explicitly refer to these systems.

120. Special consideration should be given to the cultural and socio-economic values of karst and other subterranean hydrological systems and to the fact that their "wise use" must be implemented at both national and local levels. A clear distinction is required between designation, management and monitoring of these wetlands.

B. Guidance for identifying and designating peatlands, wet grasslands, mangroves and coral reefs as Wetlands of International Importance (Resolution VIII.11)

Introduction

121. Action 6.3.1 of the Convention's Work Plan 2000-2002 requested the Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP) to prepare additional guidance for the identification and designation of peatland, wet grassland, mangrove, and coral reef wetland types as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar sites).

122. Peatlands, mangroves, and coral reefs were recognized by the Global Review of Wetland Resources and Priorities for Wetland Inventory report to COP7 as being amongst the wetland ecosystems that are most vulnerable and threatened by habitat loss and degradation, and thus in need of urgent priority action to ensure their conservation and wise use.

123. This additional guidance provides clarification of aspects of the application of the Strategic Framework and guidelines for the future development of the List of Wetlands of International Importance (Resolution VII.11) as they apply to peatlands, wet grasslands, mangroves, and coral reefs. In particular, it provides guidance to Contracting Parties on the identification and designation of representative wetlands of these habitat types in accordance with Ramsar Criterion 1 for the designation of Wetlands of International Importance.

124. The reasons for which such wetland types are as yet under-represented in the Ramsar List are various. They may include lack of recognition of the existence of particular wetland types within a particular territory; lack of recognition that coastal and marine wetland types such as mangroves and coral reefs fall within the Ramsar definition of wetlands and so are eligible for designation as Ramsar sites; difficulty in applying the guidance in completing the Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS) for Ramsar site designation, particularly in relation to the delimitation of appropriate boundaries, especially for coral reefs; uncertainty as to which particular features of these habitat types indicate the best representative examples of such wetlands under Ramsar Criterion 1; uncertainty, in the case of peatlands and wet grasslands, as to which wetland types in the Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type apply, since these habitat types can occur in a number of different categories; and, for peatlands, a lack of recognition that a wetland is a peat-based system if wetlands are assessed only for their vegetational characteristics.

125. All Ramsar Criteria for the designation of Wetlands of International Importance can be applied to the identification and designation of peatland, wet grassland, mangrove and coral reef wetland types.

126. Since each of these wetland types has been identified as being particularly vulnerable and threatened by habitat loss and degradation, the identification and designation of threatened ecological communities, as well as threatened species, under Ramsar Criterion 2 will often be of particular importance.

Identification and designation of peatlands

127. Peatlands are ecosystems with a peat deposit that may currently support a vegetation that is peat-forming, may not, or may lack vegetation entirely. Peat is dead and partially decomposed plant remains that have accumulated in situ under waterlogged conditions. It is understood in this guidance that the term "peatland" is inclusive of active peatland ("mire"). An active peatland ("mire") is a peatland on which peat is currently forming and accumulating. All active peatlands ("mires") are peatlands, but peatlands that are no longer accumulating peat would not be considered as active peatlands ("mires"). The presence of peat or vegetation capable of forming peat is the key characteristic of peatlands.

128. Since peatlands are defined by the presence of a peat substrate, whilst the Ramsar Classification System is based on vegetation, peatlands occur in a number of categories in the Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type:

a) They may occur as a Marine/coastal wetland under categories I (intertidal forested wetlands) and E (sand, shingle or pebble shores, including dune systems), and perhaps marginal areas of K (coastal freshwater lagoons).

b) They may occur as an Inland wetland, primarily under U (Non-forested peatlands) and Xp (Forested peatlands).

c) Peat soils also may be present in all other Inland wetland categories except: M (Permanent rivers/streams/creeks), Tp (Permanent freshwater marshes/pools - inorganic soils), Ts (Seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes/pools - inorganic soils), W (Shrub-dominated wetlands - inorganic soils), Zg (Geothermal wetlands), and Zk(b) (subterranean karst systems).

129. Peatlands contribute to biological diversity, global water issues, global carbon retention relevant to climate change, and wetland functions valuable to human communities.

130. Significant features of peatlands include:

a) uniqueness of the peat-forming phenomenon and its ecological and natural resource functions;
b) dependence of peatlands on their hydrology and hydrochemistry;
c) interdependence between peatlands and their catchments and adjacent watersheds;
d) uniqueness of their vegetation;
e) provision of habitat for particular taxa of fauna and flora;
f) water regulation and buffering functions;
g) capacity to regulate local and regional climates;
h) capacity to sequester carbon from the atmosphere and store it for long periods of time; and
i) ability to serve as geochemical and palaeo archives.

131. In addition to their many natural values, peatlands have important socio-economic values which include, but are not limited to, the absorption and release of drinking water, natural resource provision to local communities and indigenous people, landscape stabilization, flood mitigation, removal of pollutants, tourism, and recreation.

132. Threats to peatlands can arise from both within and outside their area and include:

a) direct threats, including drainage and land conversion, excavation, burning, over-grazing, agricultural abandonment, visitor pressure, non-sustainable commercial exploitation; and

b) indirect threats, including pollution, excessive water abstraction, reduction in extent and quality of buffer zones, and climate change.

133. Some peatlands that have been modified but remain ecologically valuable are subject to similar threats. Opportunities exist for the restoration of such areas.

Applying the Ramsar Criteria to peatlands

134. Peatlands considered for designation under Criterion 1 should include pristine active peatlands, mature peatlands and peatlands that may be no longer forming peat, naturally degrading peatlands, human-modified and impacted peatlands, and restored or rehabilitated peatlands.

135. Special attention should be given to the designation of peatlands which have at least some of the following attributes:

a) an intact hydrology;
b) the presence of a peat-forming vegetation;
c) the capacity to act as a reservoir of regional/global biodiversity;
d) the capacity to act as a carbon store;
e) the presence of a carbon sequestration function;
f) the ability to maintain a geochemical and/or palaeo archive;
g) hydrochemical diversity; and
h) macro- and/or micro-morphological features.

136. Special attention should also be given to the designation of peatlands that have high vulnerability, such that minor impacts can lead to major degradation, and to those with potential for restoration after degradation.

137. Large areas of peatland are normally of higher importance than small areas for their hydrological, carbon storage and palaeoarchive values and because they incorporate macro-landscapes: these should be afforded high priority for designation. Consideration should also be given to the capacity of the peatland system to influence regional climate.

138. Where appropriate and desirable, peatlands designated as Ramsar sites should include entire catchments, so as to maintain the hydrological integrity of the peatland system.

139. Designation of both single peatlands and complex systems that incorporate more than one type of peatland system is appropriate.

Identification and designation of wet grasslands

140. Wet grasslands are natural and near-natural ecosystems with a vegetation characterized and dominated by lower growing perennial grasses, sedges, reeds, rushes and/or herbs. They appear under periodically flooded or waterlogged conditions and are maintained through mowing, burning, natural or human-induced grazing, or a combination of these.

141. Wet grasslands include: floodplain grasslands, washlands, polders, water meadows, wet grasslands with (intensive) water level management, lakeside grasslands, vegetation dominated by relatively large, perennial, competitive herbs, and groundwater dependent dune slacks. These grasslands occur on different soils: heavy clay, loam, sand, gravel, peat, etc., and occur in freshwater, brackish and saline water systems.

142. Vegetation types that fall under this definition can appear in mosaic with one another or with other wetland types, such as peatlands, reedbeds, water-dependent shrubs, forests and others.

143. Wet grasslands are covered by the following wetland types of the Ramsar Classification System:

a) They can occur as a floodplain component, under Ts (seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes on inorganic soils, including seasonally flooded meadows and sedge marshes), and U (non-forested peatlands, including swamps and fens).

b) They can occur as a human-made wetland type, under 3 (irrigated land, including irrigation channels and rice fields), and 4 (seasonally flooded agricultural land, including intensively managed or grazed wet meadow or pasture). Irrigation channels with natural vegetation cutting through wet meadows fulfil substantial ecological functions; they are therefore considered part of wet grasslands.

c) Wet grassland habitats can also occur in other wetland types: E (sand, shingle or pebble shores including dune systems and humid dune slacks) and H ( intertidal marshes, including salt meadows, raised salt marshes, tidal brackish and freshwater marshes). They can also occur on the edges of other wetland types, such as J (coastal brackish/saline lagoons), N (seasonal/intermittent/irregular rivers/streams/creeks), P (seasonal/intermittent floodplain lakes), R (seasonal/intermittent saline/brackish/alkaline lakes and flats), and Ss (seasonal/intermittent saline/brackish/alkaline marshes).

144. Wet grasslands support specific biodiversity, comprising rare and threatened plant and animal species and communities, including internationally important bird populations, a range of mammals, invertebrates, reptiles and amphibians.

145. In recent years there has been increasing awareness about the value of wet grasslands in performing hydrological and chemical functions, notably:

a) flood alleviation - since wet grasslands can retain floodwater;

b) groundwater recharge - wet grasslands retain water within a watershed enabling groundwater to be replenished; and

c) water quality improvement - riparian wet grasslands retain nutrients, toxic substances and sediment, preventing them from entering watercourses.

146. Economic benefits accrue from these functions. When wet grasslands are destroyed, these functions are lost and have to be replaced at often enormous financial cost. These benefits include:

a) water supply - wet grasslands can influence both water quantity and quality;

b) health of freshwater fisheries - backwaters, ditches and other open water habitats within wet grassland areas are important for river fisheries;

c) agriculture - floodplains provide some of the most fertile agricultural land; and

d) recreation and sustainable tourism opportunities.

147. From an early stage in human history, floodplains have been subject to modifications. Since the industrial revolution, pressures on rivers and floodplains have increased significantly in many areas. As part of this process, wet grasslands have declined significantly in industrialized areas, but are also exposed to specific threats in other regions. This is being brought about by:

a) changes in agricultural practices - increased drainage and use of fertilizer, change from hay-making to silage, re-seeding, herbicide use, conversion to arable land, higher stocking densities, neglect or abandonment, use of aquatic herbicides;

b) land drainage - modification of natural hydrological regimes, isolation of floodplains from river flows, rapid evacuation of winter floods and early fall of spring water tables, maintenance of low water levels in drainage channels;

c) abstraction for drinking water and crop irrigation - leading to lowered river flows and in-channel water levels, lowered water tables, exacerbation of drought-related problems;

d) eutrophication - leading to changes in grassland plant communities and increased sward vigour;

e) threats to coastal wet grasslands from sea-level rise and construction of flood defences;

f) development and mineral extraction - leading to a decline of routinely flooded area and increased frequency of flooding of the remaining washland; and

g) site fragmentation - leading to isolation of sites, threatening species restricted to wet grassland and vulnerable to extinction, and to problems with water level control and agricultural management.

Applying the Ramsar Criteria to wet grasslands

148. A wet grassland should be considered for designation under Criterion 1 particularly if it performs specific hydrological functions.

149. Since wet grasslands are particularly dynamic ecosystems, special attention should be paid to the designation of those systems that, as part of river or coastal floodplains, are maintained by periodic floods or waterlogged conditions, either natural or human-induced, and demonstrate hydrological integrity.

150. Where wet grasslands are associated with agricultural or other management practices, special attention should be paid to the designation of systems whose ecological character is maintained through specific management measures or traditional forms of land and wetland resource uses (typically including induced grazing, mowing, or burning, or a combination of these), and whose continuation is critical to preventing gradual vegetation succession that may transform wet grasslands to tall reedbeds, peat bogs, or forested wetlands.

151. Many managed wet grasslands support important assemblages of breeding waterbirds and provide habitat for large populations of non-breeding waterbirds, and attention should be given to the designation under Criteria 4, 5 and 6 for these features.

Identification and designation of mangroves

152. Mangroves swamps are forested intertidal ecosystems that occupy sediment-rich sheltered tropical coastal environments, occurring from about 32º N (Bermuda Island) to almost 39º S (Victoria, Australia). Around two-thirds to three-quarters of tropical coastlines are mangrove-lined.

153. Mangrove swamps can form extensive and highly productive systems where there is adequate low-gradient topography, shelter, muddy substrates, and saline water with a large tidal amplitude.

154. Mangrove swamps are characterized by salt-tolerant woody plants with morphological, physiological, and reproductive adaptations that enable them to colonize littoral habitats. The term mangrove is used in at least two different ways:

a) to refer to the ecosystem composed of these plants, associated flora, fauna and their physico-chemical environment; and

b) to describe those plant species (of different families and genera) that have common adaptations which allow them to cope with salty and oxygen-depleted (anaerobic) substrates.

155. Mangroves occur under Marine/Coastal Wetlands: I (Intertidal forested wetlands) in the Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type.

156. Mangroves carry out critical landscape-level functions related to the regulation of fresh water, nutrients, and sediment inputs into marine areas. By trapping and stabilizing fine sediments they control the quality of marine coastal waters. They are also exceptionally important in maintaining coastal food webs and populations of animals that live as adults elsewhere and live within the mangrove at different stages of their life cycle, such as birds, fish, and crustaceans. Mangroves have an important role in pollution control through their absorptive capacity for organic pollutants and nutrients.

157. Mangroves are key ecosystems whose persistence is critical for the maintenance of landscape and seascape functions well beyond the boundaries of individual forests. Mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass beds are among the best examples of integrated landscape-level ecosystems. When they occur together, they act as a unit, forming a complex mosaic of interrelated and integrated subsystems linked by physical and biological interactions. They play an important role in storm protection and coastal stabilization.

158. Worldwide, mangrove ecosystems support at least 50 species of mammals, over 600 species of birds, and close to 2,000 species of fish and shellfish, which include shrimps, crabs and oysters. Mangroves are also important for migratory birds and endangered species. A wide variety of species from other taxa make this a highly diverse community with a complex food web that is closely interlinked with adjacent ecosystems.

159. Mangroves are indispensable to the vitality and productivity of marine and estuarine finfish as well as shellfish fisheries. Globally, nearly two thirds of all fish harvested in the marine environment ultimately depend on the health of tropical coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves, seagrass beds, salt marshes and coral reefs, for maintenance of their stocks. The health and integrity of mangroves are critical to maintaining coastal zones and their cultural and heritage assets, and in buffering impacts due to climate change effects, including sea-level rise.

160. Mangroves have played an important role in the economies of tropical countries for thousands of years, and constitute an important reservoir and refuge for many plants and animals. In tropical countries, mangrove ecosystems support extremely valuable subsistence, commercial and recreational fisheries, while also providing numerous other direct and indirect goods and services to society.

161. Mangroves differ from other forested systems in that they receive large inputs of matter and energy from both land and sea, and more organic carbon is produced than is stored and degraded. They display a high degree of structural and functional diversity, placing mangroves among the most complex ecosystems. Because of the diversity of goods and services provided by mangroves, they should not be managed as a simple forest resource.

162. A large proportion of the world's mangrove resource has been degraded by:

a) unsustainable exploitation practices, such as over-fishing, bark (tannin) extraction, charcoal and fuel wood production, and exploitation for timber and other products;

b) habitat destruction: worldwide, mangroves are threatened by clearing for agriculture, urban, tourism, and industrial development, and particularly to make aquaculture ponds;

c) changes in hydrology due to stream diversions for irrigation and dam construction, causing nutrient deprivation and hypersalinization; and

d) pollution, including industrial and sewage effluents and chronic or catastrophic oil spills.

163. Mangroves are particularly vulnerable to oil pollution and increased coastal erosion, sea-level rise, and natural events such as hurricanes, frosts, tsunamis, and human-induced climate change.

Applying the Ramsar Criteria to mangroves

164. In applying Ramsar Criterion 1 it should be recognized that mangroves occur in two broad biogeographic groups: an Indo-Pacific (Old World) group and a western African and American (New World) group, each with a characteristic but different species diversity.

165. Particular priority should be given to the designation of mangroves that form part of an intact and naturally functioning ecosystem which includes other wetland types, such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, tidal flats, coastal lagoons, salt flats, and/or estuarine complexes, since these are essential for maintaining the mangrove parts of the ecosystem. Under most circumstances, the mangrove, i.e. forested part of the site, should not be designated without inclusion of the other linked parts of the coastal ecosystem.

166. Networks of sites have more value than individual small areas of mangroves, since they contribute to the integrity of whole landscapes and seascapes. Designations that encompass whole landscapes and seascapes are valuable tools to safeguard critical coastal processes, and consideration should be given, where possible, to Ramsar site designations as part of a nested management framework for the coastal zone.

167. In determining the appropriate boundaries for site designation, consideration should be given to the following aspects:

a) inclusion of critical habitat patches, particular communities, or landforms to focus conservation and management actions;
b) provision for conservation actions within the human-dominated portion of the landscape, since a more benign human-dominated landscape can help alleviate negative edge effects;
c) provision for the conservation and wise use of large areas with relatively limited human access;
d) inclusion of whole landscape units (lagoon-estuarine complexes, salt flats, delta or mudflat/tidal flat systems);
e) the maintenance of hydrographical integrity and water quality, including in the context of catchment (river basin) management;
f) provision for the effects of sea-level rise and human-induced climate changes that may otherwise lead to loss of habitat and genetic processes; and
g) consideration of the possible landward migration of mangroves in response to sea-level rise.

168. In applying Criterion 1 to mangrove swamps, special attention should be given to the listing of areas which are in pristine condition or have biogeographic or scientific importance and protection needs.

169. Mangrove conservation should categorize units on the basis of the most appropriate use such as for protection; restoration; understanding and enjoyment of natural heritage, and conservation with emphasis on sustainable use. The minimum size of a site is that which contains the greatest diversity of habitat types, including habitats for endangered, threatened, rare, or sensitive species or biological assemblages. The "naturalness" should be considered when selecting candidate sites, i.e., the extent to which an area has been protected from or has not been subjected to human-induced change. The ecological, demographic and genetic processes should also be considered because these maintain the structural and functional integrity and self-sustaining capacity of the designated site.

170. When defining the site boundaries, it must be considered that the more complex a system, the larger the site must be in order to be effective for conservation purposes. However, boundary definition becomes more critical the smaller the unit. If in doubt, the site should be made larger rather than smaller.

171. For mangroves, particular attention should be paid to the application of Criteria 7 and 8 since mangrove systems are of critical importance as breeding and nursery areas for fish and shellfish, and Criterion 4 in recognition of the fact that because of their complex ecological, geomorphological and physical structure they can act as refuges, and are important for the persistence of populations of many migratory and non-migratory species. Designation of such areas should take into account that different habitats of coastal complexes of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs may be essential for different stages of a species' life-cycle.

Identification and designation of coral reefs

172. Coral reefs are massive carbonate structures built by the biological activity of the stony corals (true corals) and the associated complex assemblage of marine organisms that make up the coral reef ecosystem. They are found throughout the world's oceans on mud-free coastlines between latitudes 30 N and 30 S. Their estimated total area is 617,000 km2, forming about 15% of the marine shallow shelves.

173. There are three general types of coral reefs: fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. Fringing reefs are found close against the coast; barrier reefs are separated from land by a lagoon; and atolls are ring-shaped coral reefs that enclose a lagoon and have been formed where an island (often volcanic in origin) has progressively sunk below the sea surface. However, coral reefs that develop on continental coastlines are often complex and contain features that are difficult to categorize.

174. Coral reef ecosystems may also occur as a veneer over non-reef substrata. Although geologically these are not "true" coral reefs, they have the same ecological attributes as other coral reefs, and are used by people in the same ways.

175. Coral reefs falls under Marine/Coastal Wetlands: C (Coral reefs) in the Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type.

176. In many places coral reefs form part of an ecosystem that is functionally and intricately linked to other adjacent marine habitats in the Ramsar Classification System, notably A (Permanent shallow marine waters), B (Marine subtidal aquatic beds -