Ramsar logoThe Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

National Report of Israel for COP7

National Report prepared for the 7th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)

 Implementation of the Ramsar Convention in general, and of the Ramsar Strategic Plan 1997-2002 in particular, during the period since the National Report was prepared in 1995 for Ramsar COP6

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Contracting Party Israel
Designated Ramsar Administrative Authority  
Full name of the institution Ministry of the Environment
Name and title of the head of the institution Adv. Ron Komar, Director General
Mailing address for the head of the institution P.O.B. 34033, Jerusalem 95464, Israel
Telephone 972-2-6553720
Fax 972-2-6535939
E-mail mankal@environment.gov.il
Name and title (if different) of the designated contact officer for Ramsar Convention matters Dr. Eliezer Frankenberg, International and Academic Relations, Nature and National Parks Protection Authority
Mailing address (if different) for the designated contact officer 78 Yirmeyahu Street, Jerusalem 94467, Israel
Telephone 972-2-5005444
Fax 972-2-5383405
E-mail eliezerf@vms.huji.ac.il
Scientific Focal Point: Dr. Reuven Ortal, Director, Aquatic Ecology Department, Nature and National Parks Protection Authority
Telephone 972-2-5005444
Fax 972-2-5383405
E-mail ortala@vms.huji.ac.il

Ramsar Strategic Plan - General Objective 1
To progress towards universal membership of the Convention.

1.1 Describe any actions your government has taken (such as hosting regional or subregional meetings/consultations, working cooperatively with neighbouring countries on transfrontier wetland sites) to encourage others to join the Convention.

Although Israel has not taken direct action to encourage others to join the Ramsar Convention, it has participated in several regional activities which are consistent with the principles laid out in the Ramsar Strategic Plan, especially within the framework of the Middle East peace process.

Israel has taken an active part in the Mediterranean Wetland Initiative (MedWet) and participated in the MedWet meeting held in Venice in 1996. In recent years, Israel has also been involved in the Mediterranean Wetlands Committee (MedCom), and as a government member, has taken part in the first two regional meetings which took place in Thessaloniki in 1998 and Valencia in 1999.

Israel has also taken a lead in regional and international initiatives on migrating birds including waterfowl. In September 1997, it hosted an international seminar on the subject "Migrating Birds Know No Boundaries." During the course of the seminar, the following subjects were specifically discussed: bird migration research in the Middle East, educational initiatives and preservation of resting and feeding grounds, mainly wetlands, in Israel and the Middle East. Representatives of over 20 countries attended the seminar including the Interim Secretariat of the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement.

(For further information on regional cooperation see 7.1-7.5)

Ramsar Strategic Plan - General Objective 2
To achieve the wise use of wetlands by implementing and further developing the Ramsar Wise Use Guidelines.

2.1 Has a National Wetland Policy/Strategy/Action Plan been developed, or is one being developed or planned for the near future? If so:

a. What are/will be its main features?

Israel is inherently poor in water bodies (about 90% of the area of the country is dryland) and about 97% of its wetlands have been drained. Some 60% of the country is covered by the Negev desert, consisting of arid and semi-arid areas, while the rest of the country is dry Mediterranean. Therefore, a specific national policy or strategy on wetlands has not been developed in Israel, but rather has been integrated into the country’s biodiversity strategy and into the overall sustainable development policy which is currently being formulated for the country.

Legal Framework for Nature Conservation

Israel’s conservation policy is grounded in a variety of laws. Following is a brief glimpse at some of the specific laws governing nature protection, in general, and wetlands, in particular:

National Parks, Nature Reserves, Memorial Sites and National Sites Law, 1998 (henceforth Nature Reserves Law): This law, first enacted in 1963 and revised in 1992 and 1998, provides the legal structure for the protection of natural habitats, natural assets, wildlife and sites of scientific, historic, architectural and educational interest in Israel. It establishes systems for declaring nature reserves, marine protected areas and national parks and for listing protected natural assets which include many families and species of flora and fauna. This legal protection extends to many taxa, originating within or outside of Israel. The law establishes a new and united Nature and National Parks Protection Authority which replaces the previous Nature Reserves Authority and National Parks Authority as separate entities. A National Parks, Nature Reserves and National Sites Council, composed of all relevant stakeholders and appointed by the Minister of the Environment, advises the relevant ministers on implementation of the law.

Wildlife Protection Law, 1955: This law, which was amended in 1990, authorizes the Minister of the Environment to restrict the hunting of wildlife, to issue hunting permits and to appoint inspectors to enforce the law. The law defines protected wildlife as any animal that has not been designated as "pest" or "game." In effect, it declares all vertebrates (with the exception of fish) as protected wildlife species with the exception of three avian and eight mammalian species (none marine), which are legally considered pests and may be exterminated. The law also lists game species (one mammalian and seven waterfowl species) which may be hunted under license. Recent regulations (1994) incorporate the provisions of the Washington Convention (CITES) into the Wildlife Protection Law.

Fisheries Ordinance, 1937: This ordinance is enforced by the Fisheries Board of the Ministry of Agriculture. The ordinance requires a license to fish with the exception of fishing from shore with hook and rod. It sets conditions and restrictions on a wide range of subjects including prohibitions on use of explosives or poisons to catch or kill fish, prohibitions on fishing methods which may damage or threaten the survival of fish species, prohibitions or limitations on fishing in certain areas or during certain seasons, size limits for species of fish, and size and caliber of mesh of fishing nets. Other regulations prohibit fishing of marine turtles and restrict fishing of sponges. Regulations were further amended in 1998.

The Antiquities Law, 1978: This law is enforced by the Antiquities Authority of the Ministry of Education. The law protects all artifacts of human civilization prior to the year 1700. No collecting, selling or disturbing of such artifacts is permissible anywhere in Israel, including territorial waters.

Streams and Springs Authorities Law, 1965: This law authorizes the Minister of the Environment to establish authorities for the management of specific streams, springs or other water sources. Among a long and varied list of duties, a stream or spring authority is responsible for the protection of the stream and its banks, prevention of pollution, and reclamation, development and management of rivers and riverside parks. Two river authorities, for the Yarqon and Qishon Rivers, were set up under this law.

Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil Ordinance, 1980, Prevention of Marine Pollution (Dumping of Waste) Law, 1983, and Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land Based Sources Law, 1988: These three marine pollution prevention laws prohibit the pollution of the marine environment by oil, by dumping and by discharge of pollutants from land based sources. Within the framework of these laws, the marine environment is inclusive of its biological diversity.

Water Law, 1959: This law establishes the framework for the control and protection of Israel’s water resources. It states that all water sources are public property and that every person is entitled to use water, as long as such use does not cause the salination or depletion of the water resource. The law prohibits the pollution, or any act that is liable to cause pollution, of freshwater. Inter alia, the law defines "pollution" as harming the biological diversity of freshwater habitats. The Water Commissioner is responsible for prescribing norms for the quantity and quality of water and for promulgating regulations concerning "protective strips" around water sources. In recent years, the Minister of the Environment has promulgated several regulations under the law for the purpose of preventing pollution of water sources. These include prohibitions on pesticide discharge into water (1991), discharge of brines to water sources (1998) and sewage disposal from vessels (1998).

Plant Protection Law, 1956: The law authorizes the Minister of Agriculture, following consultation with an advisory interdisciplinary committee, to regulate the movement of "pests" and to regulate the import, sale, distribution and packaging of pesticides, fertilizers and other materials.

Planning and Building Law, 1965: This law sets the legal framework for all development and land use in Israel, and serves as the basis for environmental policy in Israel. All development is subject to the approval of statutory planning boards, on the national, regional and local levels.

Planning and Building Regulations (Environmental Impact Statements), 1982: These regulations under the Planning and Building Law mandate the preparation of an environmental impact statement when the planning authority considers that significant impacts may occur as a result of a plan or project. The regulations can be utilized as an important tool in protecting and using wetlands. Any proposed project which is liable to affect Israel’s wetlands may be subject to the preparation of an environmental impact statement according to specific guidelines issued by the Ministry of the Environment. Project approval is dependent on the conclusions of the environmental impact statement, which may recommend that the project should not be approved at all, or that the plan be subjected to certain conditions.

Israel’s nature protection laws establish three categories of protected biota species in aquatic environments in the country:

All taxa, as well as fossils and minerals, are protected within the limited boundaries of nature reserves;

Special taxa are protected within declared protected marine belts under the protected natural assets regulations. This category has been used to enhance the legal protection for certain taxa when the procedure for the declaration of a new nature reserve is too protracted;

Specific taxa are protected throughout the country, also outside of nature reserves.

Outside the bounds of nature reserves, protected species of aquatic ecosystems in Israel include the following:

a. Vertebrata - Under the Wildlife Protection Law, all wetland and marine mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians are fully protected, except for seven species of waterfowl which may only be hunted under license in designated areas during the hunting season (1 September to 31 January) : Anas platyrhynchos (mallard), Anas crecca (teal), Anas querquedula (garganey), Anas clypeata (northern shoveler), Aythya ferina (pochard), Aythya fuligula (tufted duck) and Fulica atra (European coot).

Under the National Parks, Nature Reserves, Memorial Sites and National Sites Law, also all reptiles including the following marine turtles are protected: Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, Dermochelys coriacea. The following inland water turtles are also protected: Trionix triunguis and Mauremys caspica rivulata. Many marine fish taxa are also protected in the Mediterranean and Red Seas including sharks - Order Sellachii (only this order from the Class Chondrichthyes), and the Teleost families Acanthuridae, Labridae, Bleniidae, Gobidae, Monocanthidae, Balistidae, Anthiidae, Pseduchromidae, Pomacemathidae, Holocentridae, Chaetodontidae, Pomacentridae, Scorpaenidae, Tetradontidae, and Diodontidae.

b. Invertebrata - Phylum Coelenterata (including all coral and sea anemones species), Phylum Echinodermata, Phylum Mollusca (all the species), and the genus Tanulirus (Crustacea: Decapoda) which are protected everywhere by Israeli law.

Israel has very few registered hunters relative to its population size. Of a total population of about 6 million, fewer than 4,500 people hold a valid hunting license (less than 0.1% of the population). Of these, relatively few view waterfowl hunting as their primary game. The most popular game species hunted is the chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar).

Waterfowl hunting is allowed in most of the northern part of the country, but not in areas where most migratory waterfowl congregate (e.g., Hula Valley, Bet She’an Valley, Western Galilee and Carmel coast fishpond areas).

Preliminary Wetland Conservation Policy

The preliminary strategy for wise use of wetlands, which has been developed within the framework of Israel’s overall conservation strategy, is based on the following elements:

b. Was it, or is it, intended that the Policy/Strategy/Action Plan be adopted by the whole of Government, the Minister responsible for Ramsar matters or through some other process. Please describe.

The Nature and National Park Protection Authority (NNPPA), under the responsibility of the Minister of the Environment, is the government agency in charge of nature and wetland conservation. The NNPPA oversees 444 nature reserves (proposed and declared) which span over 624,000 hectares. About one third of the reserves are primarily aquatic environments. The NNPPA is also responsible for 14 Mediterranean coastal parks (landside only), amongst 129 national parks which encompass 37,611 hectares throughout Israel.

As stated, since most of Israel is dryland, it is unlikely that a specific wetlands policy or strategy will be approved by the government as a whole. It is envisioned that the Ministry of the Environment will adopt a wetlands policy within the framework of the ministry’s overall nature conservation and biodiversity strategy. The policy will be implemented through the local and district planners of the ministry who are members of local and district planning committees.

c. How does it relate/will it relate to other national environmental/ conservation planning initiatives (e.g., National Environmental Action Plans, National Biodiversity Action Plans, National Conservation Strategies)?

Wetland conservation and development are integrated into the country’s National Biodiversity Strategy. The general objectives of this strategy, as specified in Israel’s report on implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (December 1997), include:

Israel hopes to meet its goals through the implementation of a number of targets:

The central components of the strategy include the following:

An essential part of the national biodiversity strategy is the setting of priorities for action. In Israel, the following criteria have been set for selecting ecosystems for preservation:

Israel began preparing its national strategy for sustainable development in 1996 within the framework of a Coastal Area Management Programme (CAMP) signed between Israel and the Mediterranean Action Plan. As part of the project, seven target groups were organized, one of which is specifically concerned with biodiversity and open space development. The groups are composed of a wide range of stakeholders including national government, local government, the private sector, academics and NGOs. Over the past two years, each of the target groups has met in order to prepare a preliminary sustainable development strategy for its sector using the consensus building approach. It is anticipated that the final documents will be published in late 1999 and that the draft strategy will later be presented to the directors general of Israel's government ministries for adoption and referral to the government for approval.

2.2 If a policy is in place, how much progress has been made in its implementation, and what are the major difficulties being encountered in doing so?

Israel’s efforts are focusing on protecting its few wetlands, largely through their declaration as nature reserves, on protecting Mediterranean marine and coastal ecosystems and restoring the country’s remaining coastal swamps, on conserving the unique coral reefs in the Red Sea, on rehabilitating the Hula Valley, on studying Israel’s saline wetlands, on restoring the country’s polluted streams, on protecting water quality in Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), on conserving invertebrates and amphibians, on developing ephemeral ponds, and on maintaining artificial water bodies.

The major difficulties which have been encountered in implementing this policy relate to conflicts between conservation and development. Over the past fifty years, Israel has been transformed from a sparsely populated country—with a population of 800,000 and a population density of 43 per square kilometer—to one of the most densely populated countries in the world (excluding the Negev desert) with a population of 6 million. While average population density is about 265 per square kilometer, 92% of the population lives in an area which covers only 40% of the state’s land. In the Tel Aviv district alone, population density exceeds 6600 per square kilometer. Population growth, accelerated development, pollution, habitat degradation and destruction, and conflicts with agricultural, industrial, residential and recreational activities, have made it difficult to conserve plant and animal species and their habitats in such areas as the densely populated coastal plain. Another major impediment to the declaration of nature reserves has been the relative lack of scientific data. Most of the country’s proposed and existing reserves were selected on the basis of scenic considerations and general impressions of their ecological value rather than on accepted criteria for selection of protected areas for nature reserves. Therefore, it is imperative that resources be found to monitor and assess wetland systems in order to provide the basic knowledge necessary to evaluate and select those areas best fitted to serve as protected areas. Such a program should monitor environmental (abiotic and biotic) parameters that provide indications of ecosystem function and community structure.

Following is a brief description of the progress made in the conservation and wise use of wetlands in recent years:

Mediterranean Marine Ecosystems

There are four types of nature reserves along the Mediterranean: marine reserves (proposed and declared), coastal reserves (proposed and declared), islet reserves, and protected natural asset belts. Declared reserves have full legal protection while proposed reserves have a limited level of protection until they are declared.

Israel has 14 proposed marine reserves, with a total area of about 2,500 hectares. In addition, it has 20 coastal reserves with an area of about 3500 ha, 16 of which are proposed and four declared. Marine reserves are declared up to the mean high tide level, while coastal reserves are declared down to the mean low tide line, providing overlap at the waterline. Because the cross-shore borders of the two types of reserves are not always congruent, only about 2/3 of the shoreline of the marine reserves has a parallel coastal reserve. Nevertheless, coastal reserves are important for the preservation of both the aquatic and the littoral environments, as they prevent shoreside development.

The third type of reserve is the islet reserve. Israel currently has two islet reserves comprised of small islands with a total area of about 33 ha. These islet reserves will be incorporated within the proposed larger marine reserves in order to enlarge the number of protected islets along the Israeli coast. Most of the islets are in proposed marine reserves and five islets are already declared as nature reserves.

In addition, there are more than two dozen small islets (totaling over 15 ha) which represent tiny remnants of kurkar (sandstone with calcite matrix) ridges which were preserved in close proximity to the shore. None of the islets are inhabited or subject to any human usage, and therefore they have not been impacted by coastal development. The vermetid reefs, a unique Levantine ecosystem, has been well preserved in these islets, and elevate their importance for conservation. Although little ecological research has been carried out on the islets, it is well accepted that they are unique and important micro-ecosystems. They provide nesting sites for marine birds and an important wintering roost for thousands of great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo). Special efforts have been taken to include as many islets within nature reserves as possible.

The fourth type of reserve is the protected natural asset belt. There are two such belts with a total area of about 1,200 ha, most of which will be included in the proposed marine reserves (i.e. 8.7 km out of 11 km of the natural assets belts). All fish, molluscs and most marine invertebrates are fully protected in these belts. Protected belts are as important as declared reserves because they provide protection for the following taxa: Class Polycheata, Sub-class Decapoda and all teleost (class Teleostei) species (all species of bony fishes).

In recent years, special efforts have been dedicated to three Mediterranean reserves–Rosh HaNiqra, Shiqmona and Dor-HaBonim–in order to declare them as Ramsar sites and as SPAMIs under the Specially Protected Areas Protocol of the Barcelona Convention.

(For further details, see tables in 6.2)

As stated, one of the primary aims of Israel’s marine management policy is to protect its unique vermetid reefs, a globally rare phenomena that occurs only on the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, and may be found, in addition to Israel, at a few narrow and limited stretches in Sicily, Spain and North Africa. Vermetid reefs are small-rimmed intertidal structures which developed in the subtropical marine water of the southern Levant and the Atlantic (Bermuda) coasts at about the same latitude. They are also known as "serpulid reefs", although in both areas they are mainly built by molluscs: Dendropoma spp. in both places and Vermetus triquetrus only in the Levant. The reefs can exist only where soft and erodable coastal rocks rise at an appropriate rate relative to the marine erosion. The rim of D. petraeum is about 10 cm high, creating an interface shallow lagoon where dense algal meadows develop with diverse and rich intertidal fauna.

Israel’s marine management policy also seeks to investigate and protect the unique phenomenon of recent ongoing migration of Red Sea species through the Suez Canal to the Eastern Mediterranean and then to other parts of the Mediterranean.

Israel’s marine reserves are stretched along the country’s 200 km Mediterranean coast and include tens of islets. They are the backbone of Israel’s conservation policy.

Coastal Swamps

The main coastal wetlands in Israel today are En Afeq (one of Israel’s Ramsar sites and the largest remaining area of swampland on the coastal plain), the remnant of the Kebara swamp and the Tanninim River (Crocodile River), and Enot Gibbeton (Soreq catchment). This is a poor remnant (less than 1%) of a rich coastal freshwater swamp system which once extended over 10,000 ha. The main causes for the disappearance of aquatic landscapes in the coastal plain include the struggle against waterborne diseases in the end of the last century, conversion of wetlands into agricultural areas, lowering of the groundwater table due to over-utilisation of coastal aquifers and pressures for residential, tourist and industrial development.

Israel expects to help solve part of its water scarcity problem by effluent reuse and seawater desalination programs. It is expected that by the year 2010, treated wastewater will contribute about one third of Israel’s agricultural requirements. Various initiatives have been launched in recent years to integrate sewage treatment with river restoration. The Ministry of the Environment has launched a new program for the use of highly treated wastewater for the restoration of streams (see below). In another initiative, constructed wetlands for the treatment of secondary effluents prior to discharge to rivers have been investigated at the Alexander River Basin. This was the first attempt to use any type of wetlands for water purification in Israel.

Recent restrictions on overpumping of groundwater in the coastal plain should also help to protect the existence of the last remaining natural springs in the reserves of Tel Gibbeton, Tanninim River and En Afeq. The still existing smaller seasonal springs belonging to the former swamps are likely to be revived with the restoration of the coastal wetlands.

Recent years have also witnessed increased efforts to preserve and protect the country’s remaining open spaces along the coastal plain. Prevention of urban sprawl along the coastal belt is a first requirement for the restoration of the coastal wetlands. Present efforts focus on the development of wetlands for tourism and recreational purposes.

It is expected that the development of larger restored wetlands for recreation will help shift part of the present human load from the small wetland reserves in the coastal area. Furthermore, the development of restored wetlands for recreation by the agricultural sector will answer an economic need and will help prevent the urbanization of open space areas. The first site to rehabilitate drained land back to wetland may be the Kebara region, near the Tanninim River.

If Israel’s coastal wetlands are to be preserved, the following steps must be taken:

Wetlands of the coastal plain have to be sustained by the implementation of a carefully prepared program which will be part of the national plan for water management.

Former wetlands of the coastal plain must be protected from urbanization and must be protected by a wetlands-water management plan.

The existing national scheme for developing stream corridors ("green lungs") in the coastal belt needs to be enlarged to include the wetlands of the former wet landscapes as well as marginal river flood plain, local depressions, rain pools, seepage and springs.

Wetlands should be viewed as means of providing continuous water supply in the right quality for restored streams and wet areas for recreation.

Rivers

The impoundment of most springs in Israel has resulted in the drying of nearly all perennial and ephemeral streams and their transformation into sewage conduits. This affected not only aquatic and riparian biodiversity but also the terrestrial biodiversity adjacent to the springs and streams, including animals with an amphibian life style. For years, the NNPPA, the Ministry of the Environment, and the Water Commission have monitored Israel’s ailing streams, collecting data on water quality, identifying sources of pollution, and compiling information on flow rates, water sources, and flora and fauna. Concomitantly, efforts and resources were invested in sewage treatment, effluent reuse in agriculture and groundwater recharge. Where possible, cleanups were initiated and riverbanks developed for recreational purposes, especially in the congested central region of the country.

These and other individual efforts culminated in the establishment of the National River Administration in November 1993. Initiated by the Ministry of the Environment, the Administration serves as a coordinating body between the numerous agencies which deal with nature protection and rivers in Israel and oversees the restoration of the country’s rivers and the preservation and renovation of natural and historic sites along riversides.

The Administration is dedicated to fulfilling the following aims:

In order to attain these goals, the Administration has committed itself to:

Over the past few years, the Administration has formulated a model for river rehabilitation and established criteria for setting priorities for river rehabilitation (e.g., magnitude of the nuisance, potential for tourism and recreation, natural and landscape resources, land and water availability, feasibility, availability of funding). In addition, ecological and environmental surveys have been initiated or completed for most of the rivers earmarked for priority action. Within the framework of these surveys, data are collected on water and pollution sources along the river (including plans for solving pollution problems), hydrology (including plans for the regulation and stabilization of river banks), water quality (physio-chemical monitoring and hydrobiology), land, flora and fauna (including mapping of protected or rare species and unique ecosystems), historical and archeological sites, landscape sites, walking paths, land uses and environmental nuisances (such as quarries, waste sites). The data are then summarized and mapped to serve as a basis for assessing the rehabilitation potential of the river.

The landscape surveys and evaluations provide planners with the necessary background information to ensure that development will not destroy the ecosystem, wildlife and landscape features of the river. In areas in which unique natural resources may be irreversibly damaged by development, conservation or minimal development are called for. In less sensitive spots, more intensive development may be possible. In addition to such essential considerations as water quality and quantity, the planning process endeavors to make the river more prominent in the landscape, to designate areas for recreation and tourism, and to establish walking paths alongside the rivers. Once completed, the masterplan for rehabilitation of the river and its corridor is presented to the relevant planning commission for statutory approval.

The goal of the Administration is to entrust actual restoration work to local stakeholders while serving as a catalyst, coordinator and professional guide. So far, regional river administrations have been set up for more than ten rivers and masterplans have been prepared for over half. One prominent example is the Alexander River Administration which launched an integrated and comprehensive rehabilitation program in 1995, with the establishment of a fifteen-member regional administration and a planning team. As a result of effective coordination and cooperation, real progress has already been achieved including the completion of an eco-environmental survey and a comprehensive masterplan. Recommendations relate to conservation and development options along the river, to monitoring requirements, and to the establishment of micro reserves along the riverside which will serve as shelters for fauna and flora especially during times of intensive tourism. Special attention is granted to the Nile soft-shell turtle (Trionyx triunguis) and to the preservation of its breeding sites along the river. With the exception of the Alexander River, this protected rare species has nearly disappeared from Israel’s coastlines as a result of deteriorating water quality and water scarcity.

To further advance river rehabilitation, a computerized database on pollution sources in several rivers has been prepared by the Ministry of the Environment. Monitoring of the microbial quality in Israel’s rivers is undertaken on a monthly basis in many rivers and more frequently in the summer and holiday seasons. Chemical monitoring is twice yearly. Surveys have recently been launched on the sludge composition in some of the country’s major coastal rivers.

The riparian ecotone forms an integral part of the stream ecosystem, and is functionally important for the riverine as well as riparian biota. Recent programs for stream restoration and afforestation emphasize the importance of "stream corridors" and "green borders" or "buffer zones" crossing the coastal megalopolis perpendicularly to the coastline.

Until 1991, all the bodies involved in wetland rehabilitation were convinced that the prerequisites for rehabilitation were the elimination of all effluents and flow of fresh water only. However, the realities of water scarcity made it clear that Israel’s rivers, in which 300-400 million cubic meters once flowed annually, will completely dry out if other means are not taken to replace or supplement fresh water. Following a comprehensive review, the policy was amended to allow for the discharge of high-quality effluents into riverbeds when fresh water allocations are unavailable. The discharge of highly-treated effluents is meant to ensure water flow, the subsistence of ecosystems and the development of recreation and leisure activities. Effluent discharge is contingent on strict control measures and is prohibited if the river is designated for abstraction of water, bathing or fishing. In order to implement the program, effluent standards for each river are being set for such physical, chemical and microbial parameters as suspended solids, organic load, nitrogen concentrations, and indicators for pathogenic microorganisms.

Conservation and sustainable use of Israel’s wetlands will be further advanced as a result of a three-year grant (1997-1999) to the Ministry of the Environment by the European Union for the joint financing of two nature conservation and biodiversity related projects in the framework of LIFE II programs. (See 2.11 below).

Eilat’s Coral Reef

Since the founding of the State of Israel in 1948, the coral reefs of Eilat have been viewed as a national treasure. In 1956, the first warden, working on behalf of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, was appointed to protect the coral reefs in Eilat under the Fisheries Ordinance which declared some corals, sponges and shellfish as "protected fishes." In 1959, most of the commercial venture of collecting corals and other species was stopped.

The marine habitats of the Red Sea are important not only for the coral reefs and other forms of marine life they contain, but also for continental fauna that use it as an important staging habitat. The area is the major bottleneck flyway for over 200 species of migratory birds, which include representatives from most avian families. Many of the waterfowl and pelagic species use the calm waters offshore to feed and to rest, prior to continuing their journeys. Without these resources, some of the long-distance avian migrants, which comprise part of the breeding populations of Europe and Asia, would not survive.

To protect this unique and sensitive area, two marine nature reserves and two coastal reserves have been proposed (one of which has already been declared). They extend over 4 km on the marine side and 3.6 km along the Israeli Red Sea coast respectively. These reserves are subject to the same restrictions on activities as all nature reserves in Israel. For example, entrance to fenced areas is permitted only to paying visitors, and collection or damage to natural assets is prohibited.

In light of the sensitivity of this ecosystem, major efforts are invested in patrol, inspection and enforcement of regulations prohibiting the collection of natural assets such as coral, molluscs and/or other protected invertebrate organisms (alive or dead), fishing from boat, shore or with spear gun of any protected fish species or fishing in the nature reserve, boating in the prohibited parts of the reef, disorderly behavior such as littering, and illegal entrance into the fenced nature reserve area from the coastal or marine side (scuba divers). In addition, the Ministry of the Environment operates a Pollution Control and Response Center north of the coral reserve to prevent potential oil spills from reaching the reserve.

Yet another pollution concern is the rapid development of fish culture. Currently fish culture is carried out in cages where nutrients are released directly into the environment. Various institutions are currently investigating the geochemistry and ecology of sediments beneath commercial fish farms in order to better understand and quantify the processes associated with this nutrient enrichment. The Ministry of the Environment has called for the preparation of an environmental impact assessment of sea cage technology, it has incorporated stringent environmental conditions in the business licenses of the fish cage farms, and has established a committee to investigate the impact of offshore fish cages on the Gulf of Eilat ecosystem.

Public awareness plays an important part in protecting the coral reef ecosystem. The NNPPA is actively involved in a special outreach program to enhance the protection of the delicate coral reef ecosystem. A Gulf Watch Forum was initiated by the Eilat Field Study Center of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel (SPNI) in 1996 to promote the conservation of the coral reef. Members of the forum include a wide array of educational, pollution control, enforcement, research, and commercial bodies including, among others, the Ministry of the Environment’s Marine Pollution Control and Response Center, the International Bird Watching Center and the Underwater Observatory.

Three forms of restoration and rehabilitation work are currently in progress along the coral reef habitat of Israel’s Red Sea coast:

Propagation of reef fragments: This joint project of the NNPPA and the Coral World Underwater Observatory involves rescuing damaged coral fragments and transferring them to open-circulation aquarium tanks where they receive proper temperature, light and nutrient regime to enable recovery and growth. Fragments are then re-attached to the reef in areas of accidental boat damage.

Artificial reefs: Several projects aim at expanding the coral reef ecosystem outside of the nature reserves by providing artificial substrates ("nurseries") for coral growth. For example, researchers at Tel Aviv University have created large artificial reefs of steel to attract coral growth. In addition, the Israel Diving Federation recently sunk an unused naval vessel offshore to provide a platform for coral growth.

Natural rehabilitation of sensitive reef areas: Within the Hof Almog Nature Reserve, some portions of the reef have been closed to divers and snorkelers in order to facilitate reef recovery.

Research of initiated coral restoration ("coral gardening"): Research studies are focusing on investigating methods of restoring the original coral fauna through the reintroduction of extinct coral species.

Hula Wetlands

One of the most pressing environmental problems in Israel has been the exploitation of water resources and the drainage of swamps. The Hula swamps (part of the Jordan River catchment in northern Israel), which covered more than 6,000 hectares, were drained in the 1950s in order to eradicate malaria and make the land suitable for agriculture. The only remnant of the former site is a 300-hectare nature reserve, Israel’s first nature reserve, which was set aside in 1964 for preservation as a result of conservation efforts by a dedicated group of nature lovers and scientists, later to form the SPNI. Their campaign helped preserve some of the indigenous vegetation, animal and bird life at this unique meeting point of tropical and temperate climate zones. The Hula Nature Reserve, one of Israel’s Ramsar sites, is the largest aquatic nature reserve in the country.

Drainage of the swamps led to such unanticipated consequences as disappearance of indigenous flora and fauna, decline of the waterfowl population, oxidation of the peatlands, spontaneous underground fires, and subsidence of the land. According to Israeli scientists, some of the Hula’s endemic species disappeared altogether, including such species as the frog Discoglossus nigriventer, the fish Acanthobrama hulensis and two dragonflies.

In an effort to solve some of these problems, a long-range plan to restore the Hula wetlands was first initiated in 1971 and a four-year restoration project was completed within the nature reserve to improve its water regime. More recently, in 1992, it was decided that a part of the larger drained Hula area (outside of the reserve) should be restored to its original wetland state. The soil works were completed in the late autumn of 1993 and the area was reflooded in April 1994. Jordan River waters were once again allowed to flow into a reconstructed part of the drained area at the heart of the Hula as part of the first stage of the rehabilitation project. The reflooding and restoration project extends over 800 hectares and includes a 110-hectare lake (Lake Agmon) at the center of what is designated to be a combination of wetlands and tourist area. Environmentalists see the reflooding as a chance to recreate a similar ecosystem, enabling many species to repopulate the Hula, while allowing others to be reintroduced once the former water system has been recreated. The entire restoration program is meant to implement the principle of sustainable use which sees the management of wetlands as part of a complex system which transforms wetlands into assets rather than obstacles to sustainable development.

As an integral part of the Hula wetland rehabilitation, a three-year, multi-disciplinary research program was initiated in 1994. The program was divided into five main fields of research: soil, eco-tourism development, agriculture, water and recreational development. Soil research focused on problems of peat-soil fertility and manganese treatment. Eco-tourism included surveys of shade trees and grass for open areas, introduction of large herbivores (water buffalo) and recolonisation by birds, mainly waterfowl. The agricultural research aimed at finding the best crops and cultivating methods for peat soils, including different vegetable species and "organic agriculture." The water section included detailed hydrological and geochemical surveys, chemical, microbial, zoo- and phytoplankton monitoring programs and special systems for the recolonisation and monitoring of the former vegetation, invertebrates and fish. Recreation research concentrated on the special development needs in wetlands.

The preliminary results of the multidisciplinary research program have shown positive results. The biota, flora and fauna appear to have established a complicated and relatively stable food web which includes the following major components: phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic communities, macrophytes, fish and waterfowl. In addition, there is a high diversity of the different assemblages which ensures ecological stability and management.

The Hula wetland rehabilitation represents an important test case for reflooding areas in an arid region. It has been more successful than predicted given the high rate of recolonisation of native fauna and flora. On the other hand, the rehabilitation has taken place too late for some aquatic species which were globally eliminated and have not recovered.

The Hula Nature Reserve (Ramsar site) is still plagued by low quality water supply which is nutrient enriched from several pollutants, especially agricultural drainage and fishpond effluents. The problem continues to threaten the nature reserve and its capacity to protect aquatic fauna and flora species.

Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee)

Lake Kinneret (the Sea of Galilee) is an ecosystem intensively managed to serve as the major operational reservoir supplying water of drinking quality to most parts of Israel. The lake, with a surface area of 170 km2, divides the upper and lower portions of the Jordan River system and is the only fresh water lake in Israel. During the past 50 years, several changes made in the catchment basin of the Kinneret have modified the balance of the lake's ecosystem. Draining of the Hula wetlands in the 1950s caused sediments and nutrients to flow directly into the lake while increased population and agricultural activity in the watershed area have led to contamination by different pollutants, especially pesticides, fertilizers and dairy farm wastes.

The need to manage environmental quality in the lake and its watershed and to protect them from nutrient overload, agriculture, grazing, sewage and tourists has led to the organization of an effective management system, coordinating research with practical administration and long-range planning. In 1968, the Kinneret Limnological Laboratory was established and four years later, partially stimulated by the initial research at the laboratory, the Kinneret Authority was established. The latter is responsible for formulating and implementing overall management policies, as well as for regulating and monitoring development in and around the lake and its catchment area with the aim of minimizing environmental pressures on the Kinneret ecosystem and maintaining water quality.

In the catchment area, a concerted effort was made to lower nutrient load by changing agricultural and irrigation practices, and by introducing new management techniques. Sewage treatment plants were improved and a new drainage network that recycled much of the polluted water within the watershed was constructed. Around the lake, public and private beaches and recreation areas with appropriate sanitary facilities were developed. Pollution and sewage from settlements, dairy farms and fishponds in the Kinneret watershed basin were treated and diverted from the lake. The "Bateiha," a unique area of shallow lagoons and wetland in the northeastern corner of the lake that is of special importance as a breeding and nursery site for the indigenous and commercially valuable St. Peter's fish (tilapid species) was declared a nature reserve. Salinity in the lake has been alleviated by diverting several major saline inputs at the northwest shore of the lake into a "salt water canal" leading to the southern Jordan River. Current chloride concentrations (ranging from 205-230 mg chloride/l) are half their level in the late 1960s.

As a result of these efforts, the levels of pathogenic organisms, toxic substances and heavy metals in Lake Kinneret have dropped over the past twenty years. Moreover, during most of this period, the algal population was characterized by general stability despite changes in some chemical and biological parameters in the lake. Studies of Kinneret water quality have shown that overall water quality in the lake has not deteriorated and that eutrophication has not taken place during the past twenty years. Improvement in water quality is expressed in a reduction in water salinity and a rise in the concentration of dissolved oxygen and pH of the epilimnion.

Beginning in 1994, monitoring data have revealed that the patterns of annual phytoplankton development in the lake have shifted and that the previous stability of the lake ecosystem has been disturbed. Most conspicuous have been the fluctuations in the dinoflagellate blooms and the relative increase of undesirable cyanobacteria in the phytoplankton. This phenomenon, coupled with the growing popularity of Lake Kinneret as a tourism, recreation and fishing site, on the one hand, and as a major source of drinking water, on the other hand, precipitated a government decision to evaluate the carrying capacity of the lake for a variety of uses. The first stage of the project assessed the carrying capacity of Lake Kinneret for the operation and maintenance of boats. Special efforts are now being invested in understanding how the lake may react to present and future environmental pressures, and various management options for future operation of the lake are now under consideration.

The case of the Kinneret serves as an excellent example of what effective basin management can achieve in preventing pollution and enhancing environmental quality. The cooperative efforts of the Kinneret Authority, the Kinneret Limnological Laboratory and the Ministry of the Environment have proven invaluable in preserving the wellbeing of the lake. In 1997, a framework plan for the treatment and disposal of wastewater in the Kinneret watershed basin was published by the Water Commission. The plan formulates a policy for pollution prevention in the Kinneret for the next 20 years which will help ensure that the lake continues to serve as a major source of potable water for a large part of the population.

In addition, an interministerial team, headed by the Ministry of the Environment, is preparing a plan to control all pollution sources into the Kinneret, including such measures as improved monitoring, supervision and enforcement and financial support of pollution abatement projects. One recommendation calls for the determination of 11 indicative parameters each year to check water quality in the lake. Another calls for a halt to all new activities which threaten to endanger water quality in the lake. No further development that may adversely impact water quality will be permitted in Lake Kinneret and its watershed.

Dead Sea

The Dead Sea, Israel’s second lake, is the lowest point on earth lying about 408 meters below sea level. The water of the Dead Sea, like that of all inland lakes with no outlet, has become increasingly saline and today registers the highest salt content in the world. Both Jordan and Israel, who share the Dead Sea, have diverted its resources. On the southern shores of the Dead Sea, both countries have set up enterprises to produce and sell potassium, salt, bromine, magnesium and medicinal salts.

The increasing water requirements of the industrial, agricultural and tourism ventures in the southern Rift Valley and Dead Sea are rapidly exhausting the water resources available in the area and threaten to further lower the water level. The former area of the lake once spanned over 940 km2. Today, the southern part of the lake (south of the Lisan Peninsula) has been drained and transformed into saltern ponds for the production of potash for the benefit of both countries.

Initial activities are concentrated on the preparation of a masterplan for the entire region and on cooperation among all stakeholders. The unique environment of the Dead Sea whose water contain salts of therapeutic value and whose majestic surroundings are dotted with remnants of ancient people is a major tourist attraction. Nature conservation bodies support tourism development which will be concentrated in a few defined loci which leave an undisturbed continuum of wide natural areas between them. Specifically, nature conservation bodies have called for preserving the biotic and zoological variety of the area and protecting the environment, the scenery and the cultural heritage related to it and for leaving natural, undisturbed spaces in this region for the benefit of future generations.

Saline Wetlands (salinas and their surroundings)

There are five salinas in Israel, four of which cover 360 hectares and are operated for salt production by a private company. They are located at Atlit on the Mediterranean coast; Qalya at the north end of the Dead Sea, and at Evrona and Eilat on the Red Sea coast. The fifth salina is managed as evaporation ponds for potash production and is located at Sedom on the southern part of the Dead Sea, which was drained completely and currently extends over 14,500 hectares.

The NNPPA has published a report on the status of salterns in Israel which relates to flora such as vegetation and algae and to faunistic components such as bacteria, insects, fish and vertebrates including amphibians, reptiles, mammals and aves. A few of the salt marshes were almost completely destroyed before any research was conducted on the composition and zonation of the vegetation. Others, such as the Atlit and Eilat salinas are expected to be drained in the next five years in order to develop their area for tourism. The Evrona salina will be enlarged by about 200 hectares, but it is not yet clear to what extent it can substitute for Eilat as a rich biotic site.

Located near the northern tip of the Red Sea, the Eilat sabkha may serve as an example of the fate of Israel’s salterns. The depression on the Israeli side extends over an area 4 km long and about 3 km wide, covering an area of about 1200 hectares. Its southern part is covered by the tourist city of Eilat and the salt ponds. The major part is cultivated by a nearby kibbutz. Less than 2% of its area forms a Bird Sanctuary Nature Reserve (23.7 hectares). The sanctuary is a rehabilitated garbage dump site and serves as a resting site for about 280 migratory bird species which pass over Eilat on their route to Africa, along the Levantine flyway. The salina located close to the city of Eilat extended over 90 hectares.

The last natural remnant of the Eilat sabkha (not included in the nature reserve) was destroyed in 1997. As a result, some 4 hectares of Seablite forest (about 2-3 meters in height), the last remnant of the previous 1200 hectares, was abandoned.

Policy on Invertebrate Conservation

Invertebrates are endangered by such threats as habitat destruction, environmental pollution, exploitation and introduction of alien species. Israel’s strategy for protecting these endangered species aims at combating all these threats, through the preservation of the ecosystems which sustain them. Implementation of the program for insect preservation requires additional research within the bounds of nature reserves in order to better understand both the inventory and the life cycles of insects within these reserves.

The following recommendations were forwarded by the NNPPA for the conservation of invertebrates in Israel:

Several species of invertebrates are protected within declared and proposed nature reserves. Outside nature reserves, taxa declared as protected natural assets are protected throughout Israel or a specific part of it. The list of protected natural assets is updated from time to time and published as required. It now includes a small number of taxa of invertebrates, mostly marine fauna. Only two groups of invertebrates which include inland species have been declared natural assets: all molluscs in Israel and one group belonging to the crustaceans.

In 1987, the NNPPA appointed an expert committee to prepare a listing of the groups of insects designated for declaration as protected natural assets. A recommended new list of taxa was presented in 1991, and included, as a starting point, the group of Lepidoptera: Ropalocera. A recent publication provides a new list of inland and inland water molluscs in Israel which includes 229 species (including 29 exotic species) of which 156 are inland species and 73 are terrestrial species. In Israel’s original listing of 200 species, 97 species (48.5%) were defined as threatened, and 15 (7.5%) as extinct, most of which are inland water species which were originally found in the coastal rivers and swamps of the coastal plain and the Hula Valley.

Construction of Rain pools and Amphibian Distribution Surveys

Israel’s Mediterranean region once boasted some 1,200-1,500 rain pools (or vernal pools) which were largely maintained by villagers and shepherds. Until the early 1950s, the rain pools played an important role as water supply sources for animal watering in the fields and human use in villages. The wide development of cultivated lands, water supply systems and urbanization caused a major decline in the number of rain pools in the Mediterranean region of Israel. About a hundred rain pools are left today, of which a few dozen have been declared as small nature reserves. However, these rain pools suffer from pollution as their drainage basin is subjected to cultivation or urbanization.

Six amphibian species exist in Israel today: two urodeles and four anurans. The seventh species which once existed in Israel is now considered extinct. Discoglossus nigriventer was known to exist in one site (Hula Valley) and has not been reported since 1955. All six species breed in rain pools and small ponds and are distributed in the Mediterranean region of Israel. It is widely assumed that all the amphibians in Israel, although declared protected natural assets by law, are on the verge of extinction as a result of habitat degradation and deterioration. Three species which reach their southernmost global distribution in Israel, are more prone to extinction: the Salamandra in the mountains of the Galilee and the Carmel; the Triturus in the mountains of the Galilee, Carmel and Judean hills and along the coastal plain and the Pelobates syriacus in the Golan, Galilee and coastal plain.

In order to promote amphibian conservation, the NNPPA published a special booklet in 1995 which identifies the main threats to amphibian life, especially the degradation of wetlands. Furthermore, in order to maintain these habitats, the NNPPA initiated a 5-year plan in 1994 to create 60 artificial rain pools in nature reserves throughout Israel. About 10 artificial rain pools are created every year. To date, about 15 rain pools were renovated and another 30 earthen rain pools were dug in nature reserve areas in the Central Galilee, Western Galilee, Carmel, Ramot Menashe and the Judean Hills. Most recently, a special concrete rain pool was constructed in the Mt. Carmel area as a reproduction site for the relic salamander population in the region.

In the past two years, a few surveys were initiated in the coastal plain, Mt. Carmel area, the Golan Heights, the Hula Valley and the Galilee in order to monitor the recent distribution of the amphibians and the results of creating artificial rain pools in reserves in order to maintain the invertebrates and amphibian species. Results have already led to efforts to construct some artificial rain pools in a nearby reserve for the type-locality of Pelobates syriacus.

Artificial Wetlands

Beginning in the late 1930s, pond fish breeding began in Israel. Today, fishponds present an alternative habitat for some of the wetland species whose habitat has disappeared. Over 30 km2 of fishponds exist in Israel today, mostly in northern Israel and the coastal plain. The remnants of the first fish farm are included in the Ramsar site of En Afeq Nature Reserve. In addition, Israel began to construct water reservoirs in the 1970s to collect floodwater and treat sewage water and spring water for irrigation in summer. Today some 450 water reservoirs exist in Israel spanning an area of 45 km2. Both fishponds and reservoirs create a favorable habitat for several species of animals. Other artificial water bodies which exist in Israel include wastewater treatment facilities (5 square kilometers), and other irrigation ponds and water facilities (20 square kilometers). It is estimated that the length of regulated water courses which run through Israel is approximately 4,000 km. About half of these are natural riverbeds which were dredged, channelized and maintained by the river drainage authorities and only short sections declared as nature reserves and national parks. The other 2,000 km are mainly drainage channels or water supply channels.

Today, there are about 100 km2 of artificial water bodies in Israel. These small water bodies, which are separated from one another, have replaced the relatively large wetlands of the past (especially the Hula Valley). These changes have had their impact on the functionality of wetlands in Israel and have led to the decrease or actual disappearance of several endemic species. On the other hand, most of Israel’s waterfowl whose habitats require lakes and ponds have adopted the artificial water bodies which have largely replaced natural wetlands over the past few decades. Therefore, these water bodies have an important role in the protection of waterfowl in Israel today.

2.3 If a Policy/Strategy/Action Plan is in place, is the responsibility for implementing it with :

a. a single Government Ministry,
b. a committee drawn from several Ministries, or
c. a cross-sectoral committee?

The Ministry of the Interior, which is responsible for national planning and building, is empowered to designate and declare new protected areas. The designation of protected areas is made by the Minister of the Interior after a long process of approval by all levels of national planning–local, regional and national–and after consultation with the National Parks, Nature Reserves and National Sites Council which is a broad collegiate body with advisory power. The Council is composed of government, local government and public representatives as well as experts in zoology, botany, ecology, archeology, geology, geography, history, economics, landscape architecture and conservation.

Responsibility for implementing nature conservation policy rests with the Nature and National Parks Protection Authority (NNPPA) under the responsibility of the Minister of the Environment. The NNPPA is dedicated to achieving its goals through the following activities:

The NNPPA fulfills its nature conservation goals through various departments and with the aid of its regional rangers and managers. It has developed a computerized database on protected natural assets, sites, species, endemic plants and fauna. Its scientists study different habitats in nature reserves, explore the relationships between flora and fauna and their environment, collect data on plant and animal behavior and examine potentially harmful influences. Their findings are used to determine how to best preserve, cultivate and rehabilitate the natural assets found in nature reserves. A special department in the NNPPA, the Aquatic Ecology Department, is responsible for the conservation and wise use of wetlands in Israel.

Several environmental NGOs in Israel take an active part in promoting wetland conservation and policy (see 9.1-9.6).

2.4 For countries with Federal systems of Government, are there Wetland Policies/Strategies/Plans in place, being developed or planned for the provincial/state or regional levels of Government? Yes/No   If yes, please give details.

Not applicable to Israel

2.5 Has a review of legislation and practices which impact on wetlands been carried out, and if so, has this resulted in any changes which assist with implementation of the Ramsar Convention? Please describe these.

Standards and regulations are continuously revised and updated based on the results of monitoring and inspection systems and on international experience.

Several measures have been integrated into Israel’s environmental legislation in recent years in order to achieve environmental goals and increase deterrence. These include such measures as implementation of the "polluter pays principle," incremental daily fines for continuing violations and doubling of fines for recurring violations or for corporations, establishment of offenses as strict liability offenses, imposition of personal liability on corporate managers and heads of local authorities, administrative injunctions by the Ministry of the Environment to prevent, stop or minimize nuisances or to take steps to restore previous conditions (cleanup orders), and institution of finable offenses which enable the offender to pay a fine and dispense with the need for court proceedings.

The resources invested in deterrence and enforcement in recent years have had a major impact, both direct and indirect, on the environmental conduct of local authorities and industrial plants throughout the country. Furthermore, more and more suits have been presented by the Environment Ministry and by others against mayors and municipalities charged with environmental offenses, especially water pollution.

The Nature Reserves Law has been revised several times since its first enactment in 1963 as have the regulations on protected natural assets. New nature reserves and national parks are continuously being declared, new species are added to the list of protected natural assets and water allocations for springs and streams are updated in order to allow them to function for tourism and recreation purposes. In addition, lists of species permitted and prohibited for hunting, including waterfowl, are constantly revised on the basis of ongoing research, surveys and annual census results. For example, the Wildlife Protection Law was recently amended to protect all vertebrates (with the exception of fish) so that all amphibians are granted special protected status under the law. Since Israel is party to a number of international conventions on nature protection, it drafts or amends its national legislation to allow it to implement the provisions of international law. Thus, the protected status which was recently granted to sturgeons under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, is being enforced in Israel through special conditions issued by the NNPPA, as the administrative authority for CITES in Israel, to importers of all larvae for aquaculture in order to prevent biotic pollution. The synergistic effect of the different international conventions which are under the same national authority is providing comprehensive control and protection of aquatic ecosystems in Israel.

In 1998, in a further effort to protect coastal resources, the Ministry of the formulated a draft coastal law aimed at preserving and restoring the coastal environment and its fragile ecosystems, reducing and preventing coastal damages and establishing principles for the management and sustainable development of the coastline.

Finally, major reviews of practices which impact on wetlands have been carried out within the framework of the rehabilitation plan for the Hula Valley and the national river rehabilitation project. Both these projects have greatly assisted with the implementation of the Ramsar Convention.

2.6 Describe the efforts made in your country to have wetlands considered in integrated land/water and coastal zone planning and management processes at the following levels:

a. national
b. provincial
c. local

Israel utilizes the land use planning system as an effective framework for implementing nature protection policy. Environmental considerations, including conservation of aquatic ecosystems, are integrated into all relevant national schemes and are at times the dominant considerations. Several national plans are targeted at protecting specific natural resources considered to be of high value as part of the natural and cultural heritage, such as plans for nature reserves and national parks and forested areas. Other plans address particularly sensitive areas warranting special attention such as plans for the Mediterranean coastal area, Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) shores and the Gulf of Eilat. National planning requires the integration of environmental and ecological considerations from the earliest stages of planning until final formulation of the planning documents which are presented for approval to the statutory planning agencies.

The National Masterplan for National Parks, Nature Reserves and Landscape Reserves (National Outline Scheme - NOS 8), approved in 1981, is a legally binding national plan setting aside specific areas as national parks or nature reserves. The purpose of the plan is to designate areas for nature conservation, protect areas of high scenic value from unsound development and preserve areas with high recreation and tourism potential. The scheme constitutes an initial safeguard and is backed by another legal procedure—declaration of areas as nature reserves or national parks through the Nature Reserves Law. Over one-quarter of the country’s land area is designated for these purposes in the masterplan.

In recognition of the national value of Israel’s coastline, the National Planning and Building Board, the top level of national planning, ordered the preparation of national plans for all of the country’s sea and lake shores: the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. The first stage of the National Masterplan for the Mediterranean Coast (NOS 12), which was approved by the government in 1983, includes protection of large sections of the coastline as nature reserves, national parks and coastal reserves and allocation of coastal areas for tourism and recreation. The masterplan includes a clause prohibiting development within 100 meters of the coastline.

To help provide a comprehensive long-term guide to planning policy, the National Board commissioned a more detailed document for the resource management of the Mediterranean coastline for tourist and recreation activities. The coastal management plan, prepared by the Environment Ministry, was approved in principle by the National Board. It bases development policies on principles of suitability and sensitivity of coastal resources based on geological, vegetation and landscape surveys. Multidisciplinary teams prepared ecological guidelines for the plan which included recommendations on the conservation of rare and unique habitats, rocky shore habitats which are rich in invertebrate life, important biotic features and habitats such as breeding and nesting grounds of migrating and non-migrating birds (particularly near fish ponds and around river mouths) and egg-laying habitats of sea turtles, and areas adjacent to nature reserves and sensitive habitats.

The National Masterplan for the Kinneret Watershed and Coasts is also a resource protection and management plan. It defines land uses along the lake’s shores and guides development activities in the catchment basin in order to safeguard the quality of the lake shores.

The National Masterplan for Forests and Afforestation (NOS 22), in force since 1996, grants certain areas legal status as forested areas, and thus protects them from development. The main purpose of the scheme is to protect existing "man-made" and natural forests and to designate areas for future afforestation to meet ecological and recreation goals. It designates 162,000 hectares for the development and conservation of forest lands in Israel and includes eight categories of forest including coastal park forests and riparian plantings. Tree planting along rivers for recreational purposes is an important component of this masterplan.

The National Outline Scheme for Building and Development (NOS 35), now nearing completion, is an integrated development plan which gives strong emphasis to environmental management principles and to the protection of areas of high natural and landscape value such as wetlands. Among other provisions, it calls for the protection of open space both in the periphery and in the densely populated central area of the country where "buffers" along riverbeds will separate urban concentrations.

Israel’s long-range masterplan, "Israel 2020", was launched in 1991 for the purpose of preparing comprehensive and non-statutory strategic documents which will form a framework for national plans for the next 30 years. An assessment of the sensitivity of open space in Israel, including aquatic ecosystems, was an important element in formulating the preferred alternative for integrated planning of the state’s future developments. Green buffers, open spaces and preservation of natural assets are important elements in this long-range plan.

Many of the country’s regional masterplans, which implement the objectives of national outline schemes in each district, are currently being updated and amended to include environmental elements. On the local level, various wetlands including the Hula Valley, fishponds, and other water bodies are accorded special protection in local and regional land-use plans and are required to apply to the Water Commissioner for water allocations. Hunting is prohibited in wetlands such as fish ponds as well as in the entire southern region of the country which constitutes more than half of the land area of the country (12,000 km2).

Wise use of wetlands is an important component of Israel’s integrated coastal zone management strategy. In light of intensive development pressures on Israel’s Mediterranean and Red Sea coastlines, major emphasis has been placed on coastal area management. In 1996, Israel and the Mediterranean Action Plan signed a Coastal Areas Management Programme which is oriented to the creation and promotion of the process of integrated coastal planning and management. Its major components include development of a national strategy for sustainable development, assessment and management of coastal resources and hazards, economic instruments, remote sensing and integrated coastal area management.

In 1997, the Ministry of the Interior initiated an integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) approach in a policy document which was recently drafted under the responsibility of the Territorial Water Committee, a statutory committee on the national level of planning which is responsible for approving all offshore structures. The policy document relates to both natural and anthropogenic processes which impact the coastal area. The document relates to oceanography and marine geology, flora and fauna, fishing, pollution sources, marine structures, tourism and economic factors. The main purpose of the proposed approach is to provide the conditions likely to facilitate sustainable development while protecting the environment. Its major aims are to protect, conserve and rehabilitate the diversity, quality, quantity and function of natural systems and to ensure integrated management of coastal resources.

The complexity of water supply issues in Israel has led to a decision to prepare a masterplan for the water economy. Its main aim is to protect Israel’s water sources, and it is based on hydrological sensitivity maps of the various areas of the country for various types of land uses. Subjects that will be incorporated in the plan will include, inter alia: adequate allocations to water bodies and rivers, preservation of open spaces around Lake Kinneret, Israel’s rivers and the Hula Valley, and administrative cooperation among the different authorities responsible for water planning. Most of the wetland reserves approved by the NNPPA have already been granted official water supply permits from the Water Commissioner (including rain pools for their natural runoff) in order to maintain their water. Over the past five years, efforts have been invested in obtaining similar water supply permits for other small wetlands which have survived outside nature reserves (rain pools, small springs, etc.) in order to protect them from diversion, drainage, and other water utilization schemes.

2.7 Have there been any publications produced, or practices documented, which could assist other countries to promote and improve the application of the Ramsar Wise Use of Wetlands Guidelines? Yes/No   If Yes, please provide details and copies.

Several publications and documents have been prepared in recent years on the restoration, conservation and development of Israel’s wetlands. Special attention has been paid to documentation on Israel’s river rehabilitation project, water and watershed management in the Sea of Galilee and the Hula reflooding and restoration project. Most of the publications are in Hebrew.

Following is a partial list of some of the publications which have been issued in recent years:

Our Country's Rivers: a quarterly on river rehabilitation activities in Israel published by the Ministry of the Environment, Jewish National Fund and National River Administration (with the aid of a grant by the European Union, within the framework of its LIFE II program) (Hebrew);

Proceedings of annual symposia on such topics as conservation and development of the Lake Kinneret watershed basin, coral reefs, Mediterranean coast, fish, etc. (mostly in Hebrew);

The Jordan River – Restoration, Conservation and Development: A proposal for rehabilitation of the Jordan River as a focal point of Israeli-Jordanian cooperation published by the Ministry of the Environment, Water Commission, National River Administration (1995, Hebrew with English abstract);

Annual reports on water monitoring in Israel’s rivers published by the Ministry of the Environment (Hebrew);

Israeli National Report on Nature Conservation and the Coral Reef Ecosystem in the Israeli Part of the Gulf of Aqaba: Prepared for the Middle East Regional Meeting of the International Coral Reef Initiative (September 1997) by the Ministry of the Environment (English);

Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in Israel: Report of the State of Israel to the Convention on Biological Diversity (December 1997);

Papers on the restoration and conservation of the reflooded Hula wetlands in Preservation of Our World in the Wake of Change: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Israeli Society for Ecology & Environmental Quality Sciences (July 1996) (English).

2.8 Noting COP6 Recommendation 6.14 relating to toxic chemicals and pollution, please advise of the actions taken since then "to remedy and to prevent pollution impacts affecting Ramsar sites and other wetlands" (Operative paragraph 9).

Israel’s Water Law prohibits any person from throwing or discharging any liquid, solid or gaseous substance into or near a water resource. Penalties imposed for directly or indirectly causing water pollution have been raised significantly in recent years and include additional daily penalties in case of a continuing offense. If a suspicion arises that an offense has been committed, the court may, in response to a request by the prosecutor, issue a temporary court order to prevent, stop or reduce water pollution, even before an indictment has been served. In addition, where the Water Commissioner is satisfied that water pollution has been caused, he may order the person responsible to stop the pollution or restrict it. A court may require the following, in addition to the fine or imprisonment sentence: payment of clean-up expenses and an order to take all measures to stop the pollution, restore prior conditions, and prevent the recurrence of the pollution.

The legal framework for water protection in Israel is constantly being expanded. Regulations pursuant to the Water Law include prohibitions on the rinsing of containers used for spraying of chemical or biological substances into water sources and prohibitions on aerial spraying of chemical and biological agents for agricultural purposes near water sources.

The enactment of the Hazardous Substances Law in 1993 provides for "cradle to grave" supervision and management of hazardous substances. The administrative enforcement means established by the law include a permit requirement for any premise dealing with a hazardous substances. A 1997 amendment to the law has strengthened it by providing for the introduction of conditions into the permit, enlarging penalties up to a maximal fine of $300,000 and maximum imprisonment periods of between six months and three years, widening judiciary powers to issue performance orders, adding powers to issue administrative eviction orders, imposing personal liability on company directors and applying obligations and responsibilities on the state and its organs. In recent years, courts have imposed maximal penalties on individuals and corporations which have discharged toxic chemicals into water bodies.

2.9 Describe what steps have been taken to incorporate wetland economic valuation techniques into natural resource planning and assessment actions.

The incorporation of economic valuation techniques into natural resource planning and assessment actions is only beginning in Israel. Nevertheless, the subject has been accorded priority for research by the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of the Environment. One of the studies currently being conducted by the Natural Resources and Environmental Research Center and the Institute of Evolution at Haifa University is entitled "Valuing Irreversible Biodiversity Loss." This interdisciplinary study, combining economic and ecological research, will propose an economic model for estimating potential irreversible damage to species diversity which may result from development decisions. The study is expected to serve as a methodological basis for future applied work, especially in connection with environmental impact assessment.

Israel’s emerging sustainable development strategy also advocates incorporation of the economic valuation of resources, including wetlands, into decision making. Israeli ecologists believe that since Israel is poor in aquatic ecosystems, a higher score should be attributed in the valuation of biodiversity to areas that contain aquatic ecosystems. In general, it is proposed that an area should be valued by three criteria: its ability to provide ecosystem services, the number of species of potential or existing economic benefit that it harbors and its ability to absorb anthropogenic disturbances without losing biodiversity and its potential for rehabilitation following disturbance.

Development of the Hula wetlands rehabilitation scheme included forecasts of the expected recreational benefits of the project. Researchers used the Contingent Valuation Method in which individuals are induced to state the maximum sum of money they would be willing to pay as entrance fee to a similar park. Based on a survey conducted in neighboring parks in the Upper Galilee, some 87% of the respondents expressed their interest in visiting the proposed park and stated they would be willing to spend about $10 per adult for entrance fees. The preliminary results indicate that the park has significant potential as a recreation area.

2.10 Is Environmental Impact Assessment for actions potentially impacting on wetlands required under legislation in your country? Yes/No

Israel’s EIA regulations were promulgated in 1981. The regulations specifically enumerate the following types of plans, among others, for which planning authorities may require EIAs: marinas, national water supply arteries, dams and reservoirs and wastewater treatment plants. EIA requirements are also incorporated into the regulations of a number of masterplans including coastal masterplans. In addition, a planning authority or a ministerial representative on a planning authority may require an EIA, at any stage of the planning process prior to the plan’s approval, on any plan expected to have significant environmental impacts, including impact on wetlands. Over the years, EIAs have been required for new marinas and proposed hydroelectric power plants.

A recent review has revealed that some 10% of all EIAs have related to water issues. Many projects, for which an EIA is required, relate to water and to the potential adverse impact of projects on water resources. These include plans for power plants, landfills, recreation and tourism and residential areas. In several cases, siting of a potential project is largely evaluated according to its sensitivity to water pollution. An analysis of EIAs required since 1982 shows special focus on the Kinneret drainage basin. Of 120 EIAs required in the northern region of Israel, about 25% have related to this specific region.

To further refine and improve the EIA process, the Ministry of the Environment has prepared a draft amendment to the regulations which will bring additional projects and policies under the EIA umbrella, will further open the EIA to public review and public hearing, and will require EIAs for development projects in environmentally areas which include natural assets or resources including coasts, infiltration sites, water sources or adjacent areas.

2.11 Is wetland restoration and rehabilitation considered a priority in your country? Yes/No.  If Yes, describe the actions that have been taken to identify wetlands in need of these actions and to mobilise resources for restoration or rehabilitation.

Wetland restoration, coral reef rehabilitation and river rehabilitation are gaining increasing importance in Israel today, due to growing environmental awareness, on the one hand, and mounting development pressures which threaten the few remaining open spaces in the country, on the other hand. In recent years, both governmental and non-governmental bodies have initiated projects to classify Israel’s open space landscapes, including wetlands, into landscape units according to such criteria as ecological function, cultural and historic importance, rarity, regeneration capacity, landscape and aesthetic function and potential for leisure and recreation. Based on the carrying capacity for development of each landscape unit, guidelines for planning and land use have been defined.

The NNPPA is preparing a so-called "Open Landscape Plan" for Israel whereby vegetation data is compiled, evaluated, mapped and incorporated with DTM, geological and geomorphological data, using a Geographical Information System. The result will be a database archive for ecosystem assessment of the remaining open natural landscapes in Israel. It will include an evaluation of each area based on such criteria as unique or rare elements, biodiversity in terms of species and communities, and potential for sustainability based on size and connectivity to other areas.

More recently, a study has been initiated to characterize and delineate wetlands in Israel based on about 500 wetland plant species and their common habitats. The study accords special attention to rare habitats and endangered species and includes a "Red List" of endangered species and recommendations for their preservation. Each species was classified separately according to variables which include physical conditions (water affinity levels and salinity types), wetland types as specified for Ramsar sites and wetland habitat types in Israel, distribution and chorotype, life form, and abundance level. In addition, a detailed description of the types of habitats which support wetland plants in Israel is included. The main objective of this classification is to create a preliminary database for research and management on wetland plant species, especially rare and endangered species, which will facilitate the development of the country’s wetlands inventory and set priorities for protection. Mapping and Geographic Information Systems will play an important role in assessment and evaluation of threatened wetlands.

Surveys and monitoring of plant and animal species, and especially of waterfowl and of fish, have long been carried out in Israel in order, inter alia, to identify wetlands in need of restoration. Most of the monitoring activities are performed by researchers from various institutions who share their efforts with the NNPPA. At present, the NNPPA’s small research budget does not suffice for basic research on wetland areas, but rather for small scale surveys only.

On the Mediterranean Sea, the following types of research and monitoring activity are regularly undertaken:

Israel conducts a marine monitoring program in its 20 coastal nature reserves, 14 marine reserves and 2 islets on the Mediterranean coast and in one marine and coastal reserve in the Red Sea. The program is carried out in shallow water (0-10 meter depth) and largely relates to human load in the coastal region.